JHHL, 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


FARM   BUILDINGS 

WITH  PLANS  AND 
DESCRIPTIONS 


BY 

HERBERT  A.  SHEARER 

AGRICULTURIST 


ILLUSTRATED 


CHICAGO 
FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1917 

By 
FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO. 


Printed  in  the  U.  S.  A. 


Arcfcftecfure  £ 
Urban  Planning 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 
ECONOMY  OF  GOOD  FABM  BUILDINGS 7 

CHAPTEB  II 

Two  KINDS  OF  BABN  CONSTBUCTION 10 

CHAPTEB  III 

HOBSE    AND    COW    BABN 16 

CHAPTEB  IV 
ENLABGED  DAIBY  AND  HORSE  BABN 23 

CHAPTEB  V 
DAIRY  BARN  FOB  TWENTY-EIGHT  Cows 33 

CHAPTEB  VI 

DAIBY  BARN  FOB  THIBTY  Cows 43 

CHAPTER  VII 

MONITOR  ROOF  DAIBY  STABLE 49 

CHAPTEB  VIII 
NEW  MODELS  FOB  FABM  BABNS 62 

CHAPTER  IX 
MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  BUILDINGS 71 

CUAPTEB  X 

"Hoc  HOUSES  FOB  WINTER  AND  SUMMER 112 

I 


6  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI 

PAGE 
POULTRY,  POULTRY  HOUSES  AND  POULTRY  FURNITURE 124 

CHAPTER  XII 
CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM 151 

CHAPTER  XIII 
COMFORTABLE   FARM   HOMES 160 

CHAPTER  XIV 

DICTIONARY  OF  BUILDINGS  AND  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS 23C 

INDEX  . .  253 


FARM  BUILDINGS 

CHAPTER  I 
ECONOMY  OF  GOOD  FARM  BUILDINGS 

The  first  farmers  in  the  middle  west  threshed  grain 
and  piled  it  upon  the  ground  because  they  had  no 
barns,  granaries  or  warehouses.  It  was  hauled  to  rail- 
way tracks  and  shoveled  into  box  cars  at  the  first 
opportunity.  Box  cars  were  not  always  available,  the 
weather  was  uncertain,  and  the  losses  always  fell  on 
the  farmer.  There  were  no  cattle  to  use  the  straw,  so 
it  was  burned  to  get  it  out  of  the  way.  The  farmer's 
life  represented  years  of  incessant  toil  interspersed 
with  every  kind  of  losses  that  pioneering  imposes.  The 
only  excuse  the  early  pioneers  had  for  not  starving  to 
death  was  the  wonderful  productivity  of  the  virgin 
soil. 

To  grow  a  profitable  crop,  a  farmer  must  devote 
time,  knowledge  and  experience  to  the  work.  It  means 
years  of  partial  failures  in  the  process  of  learning  how. 
The  present  crop  is  produced  by  days  of  labor  in  pre- 
paring the  land,  planting  seed,  and  nursing  the  crop 
through  to  a  successful  harvest.  When  the  crop  is 
finally  secured,  large  barns  are  needed  to  take  care  of 
the  grain  and  the  straw  with  the  necessary  stable  room 
for  live  stock  to  make  proper  use  of  the  grain  that  is 
7 


8  FARM  BUILDINGS 

not  sold.  To  care  for  domestic  animals  properly,  not 
only  stabling  is  necessary,  but  storage  for  roughage  in 
silos  and  mows,  also  rat-proof  granaries,  ventilated 
corn  cribs,  and  labor-saving  machinery  to  help  with 
the  chores. 

Saving  the  waste  makes  the  profit.  In  all  kinds  of 
manufacturing,  the  by-products  are  carefully  saved 
and  worked  into  salable  merchandise.  Farming  is,  or 
should  be,  a  great  manufacturing  business  so  carefully 
conducted  that  no  by-product  is  permitted  to  go  to 
waste.  The  land  provides  the  raw  materials  and  the 
buildings  are  the  factories  where  the  cheap  grains  and 
fodders  are  changed  into  high-priced  butter,  pork, 
eggs,  beef,  mutton,  etc.  Farmers  who  try  to  farm 
without  sufficient  factory  buildings  must  sell  their  raw 
materials  and  let  the  next  fellow  make  the  profit. 

No  farmer  ever  made  money  by  growing  grain  and 
burning  the  straw,  although  he  may  have  gathered  a 
few  dollars  by  robbing  the  land.  There  are  instances 
where  straw  may  be  worth  more  than  the  grain.  In 
every  case  it  is  a  valuable  by-product,  if  the  farmer 
has  the  necessary  machinery  to  work  it  up. 

It  does  not  pay  to  grow  corn,  sell  the  grain  and  let 
the  weather  take  the  substance  out  of  the  stalks.  A 
crop  worth  growing  is  worth  housing.  The  stalks  are 
about  half  the  value  of  the  corn  crop.  When  this  half 
is  wasted,  it  is  more  than  half  because  the  cost  of  grow- 
ing the  whole  crop  must  be  charged  against  the  half 
that  is  saved.  No  business  except  farming  could  stand 
such  a  loss.  No  farmer  can  afford  to.  A  manufac- 
turer would  have  to  settle  with  his  creditors,  and  the 
merchant  caught  wasting  half  his  substance  would  be 
sent  to  an  asylum  for  brain  treatment. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  9 

THE   COST   OF   BUILDING 

I  am  often  asked  to  give  the  cost  of  building  a  house 
or  barn  of  a  given  size  and  plan,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  do  so,  for  the  following  reasons : 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  carpenters  may  be 
employed  at  two  dollars  per  day,  while  in  other  sec- 
tions they  get  seven. 

One  farmer  may  have  a  good  gravel  pit  on  his  farm 
so  he  can  haul  it  to  the  building  site  at  odd  times  at 
little  or  no  extra  expense.  Another  farmer,  wishing 
to  put  up  the  same  kind  of  building  in  another  county, 
would  pay  two  dollars  per  yard  for  sand  or  aggregate 
at  the  car  and  haul  it  several  miles. 

Prices  of  lumber  and  other  building  materials  also 
vary  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Therefore  any 
general  estimate  would  prove  misleading. 


CHAPTER  II 
TWO  KINDS  OF  BAEN  CONSTRUCTION 

Two  ways  of  building  the  same  kind  of  barn  are 
shown  in  Figures  1  and  2.  The  first  is  the  old  style 
timber  frame  barn  and  the  other  shows  the  newer 
plank  frame  construction. 

Both  barns  are  serviceable.  Both  have  stood  and 
protected  animals  and  fodder  during  the  heavy  storms 


CC035       SECTION 

Figure  1. — Cross  Section  of  Old  Style  Timber  Frame  Barn, 
42  Feet  in  Width 

of  winter  and  summer.     It  is  largely  a  question  of 
preference  when  deciding  which  kind  to  build. 

One  farmer,  who  was  preparing  to  build  wrote  in 
this  way :    "I  am  interested  in  barn  roofs  and  I  don 't, 
10 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


11 


remember  having  seen  the  .question  of  stresses  in  a 
gambrel-shaped  roof  fully  discussed  as  to  whether  it 
has  any  advantages  over  the  old  style  of  gable-end 
roof." 

Probably  thousands  of  farmers  have  asked  the  same 
question  since  the  curb  roof  became  popular,  and  to 


f: 


Pig.  2. — Cross  Section  of  Dairy  Barn,  42  Feet  Wide,  Showing 
Plank  Frame  Construction  Truss.  The  Building  is  Wider  on 
Account  of  the  Central  Alleyway  to  Make  Room  for  the  Manure 
Spreader  Drawn  by  Four  Horses 

answer  it  fully  I  have  made  drawings  showing  the  old 
and  the  new  and  shall  give  reasons  for  the  change  in 
style  and  manner  of  construction. 

Probably  few  carpenters  have  ever  correctly  figured 
the  different  strains  that  the  roof  trusses  of  a  gambrel 
roof  barn  are  called  upon  to  resist.  The  combination 
of  different  angles  connecting  at  many  different  points 


12  FARM  BUILDINGS 

complicates  the  problem  of  calculation  beyond  the 
capabilities  of  ordinary  mathematicians.  But  common 
practice  has  settled  on  certain  sizes,  angles,  propor- 
tions, lengths  of  rafters  and  braces,  sizes  of  dimension 
stuff  and  roof  pitches  that  have  stood  the  tests  of  wind 
pressure,  rain  and  heavy  loads  of  snow  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  years. 

Figure  1  shows  an  old  fashioned  timber  frame  barn 
with  a  straight  gable-end  roof,  built  in  the  usual  way. 
Figure  2  shows  the  modern  plank  frame  construction 
with  a  curb  roof. 

Both  barns  are  forty-two  feet  wide  to  provide  room 
for  a  wide  driveway  through  the  center  of  the  cow 
stable  for  the  manure  spreader  drawn  by  four  horses. 
Figure  3  shows  the  floor  plan. 

Because  of  the  extra  width  the  lower  rafters  of  the 
plank  frame  barn  are  longer  than  usual.  When  the 
cows  face  in,  and  manure  carriers  are  provided,  the 
width  of  the  barn  usually  is  thirty-six  feet. 

The  storage  capacity  under  a  barn  roof  depends 
upon  the  height  above  the  plates.  In  this  timber  frame 
barn  we  get  a  height  of  fourteen  feet,  while  the  plank 
frame  barn  roof  rises  twenty-four  feet  above  the 
plates. 

Other  advantages  of  plank  frame  construction  are 
the  ease  of  building  up  timbers  of  any  size  or  strength 
required  by  adding  planks.  Planks  are  carried  in 
stock  by  all  lumber  yards,  but  timbers  often  require 
special  orders  which  cause  delays,  special  trips  and 
extra  cost 

The  upper  roof  lies  low  to  catch  little  wind  pressure. 
This  portion  of  the  roof  receives  less  rain  water  and 
is  short ;  therefore  it  may  have  a  low  pitch.  It  dumps 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


13 


14  FARM  BUILDINGS 

its  supply  of  water  onto  the  steeper  slope  of  the  lower 
roof  to  be  disposed  of  quickly. 

The  curb  strengthens  the  roof  to  the  extent  of 
eliminating  the  purline  plates  and  their  supporting 
posts. 

A  plank  frame  barn  is  built  of  trusses  reaching  from 
one  sill  to  the  other,  each  half  truss  is  opposed  to  and 
supports  or  braces  its  mate  through  their  connection 
at  the  apex,  somewhat  on  the  cantilever  principle. 

Planks  are  lighter  than  timbers  and  more  easily 
handled.  They  are  held  at  the  lumber  yards  until 
partly  seasoned,  so  they  are  easily  worked.  Less  mate- 
rial is  required  for  plank  frame  construction  because 
the  planks  are  doubled,  trebled  or  used  singly,  and 
they  vary  in  width  according  to  the  strength  required. 

A  plank  barn  frame  is  easily  and  quickly  spiked 
and  bolted  together  and  the  work  is  so  simple  that  any 
farm  hand  can  follow  instruction  from  the  boss  car- 
penter. One  skilled  mechanic  and  one  or  two  handy 
men  will  do  all  of  the  necessary  squaring  and  beveling 
of  plank  ends  and  the  spiking  and  bolting  in  a  short 
time,  and  they  will  do  the  raising  with  the  aid  of  an 
improvised  derrick.  Plank  frame  construction  has 
completely  discouraged  the  old  fashioned  "raisin* 
bee." 

Storage  for  large  quantities  of  roughage  is  more  of 
an  object  than  formerly,  because  live  stock  is  kept  in 
greater  numbers.  Barn  lofts  free  from  center  posts 
and  cross  timbers  may  be  filled  easily  by  horsepower 
or  engine  power,  and  the  fodder  may  be  dug  out  in 
winter  with  the  same  machinery.  Thresher  blowers 
are  directed  into  a  hay  door  to  fill  one  end  of  the  big 
mow  with  straw  for  winter  bedding.  Hay  tipples  are 


FARM  BUILDINGS  15 

used  to  dump  fork  loads  or  sling  loads  of  hay  over 
against  either  side  of  the  mow  to  save  hand  labor. 
Hay  tipples  require  a  clear  space  from  one  end  of  the 
barn  to  the  other,  and  to  make  them  profitable  the 
barn  must  have  both  height  and  width.  Another  rea- 
son for  the  popularity  of  curb  roof  barns  is  that  most 
farmers  like  their  appearance. 


CHAPTER  III 
HOESE  AND  COW  BAKN 

The  most  popular  kind  of  barn  on  American  farms 
is  a  combination  horse  and  cow  stable  with  large  stor- 
age for  grain  and  roughage  overhead. 

Most  farmers  keep  both  horses  and  cows.  "When  the 
new  barn  is  planned  it  sometimes  seems  best  to  make 
it  enough  longer  to  also  stable  the  horses,  as  the  ex- 
pense is  likely  to  be  but  little  more  and  all  the  chores 
may  then  be  done  under  one  roof. 

This  barn  shown  in  Figure  4  is  intended  to, stable 
nineteen  cows  and  six  horses,  in  the  regular  stanchions 
and  stalls,  and  there  is  a  rather  large  box  stall  that 
may  be  used  for  a  bull  pen  or  for  calves.  There  may 
come  times  when  it  will  be  needed  as  a  hospital  stall, 
although  as  a  general  thing  it  is  better  to  remove  sick 
animals  to  another  building. 

There  are  roller  doors  to  shut  off  the  horse  stable 
from  the  cow  department  and  these  doors  are  kept 
shut  except  at  stable  cleaning  time.  Dairy  rules  and 
some  dairy  laws  require  that  dairy  stables  shall  be 
separate  from  all  other  departments  of  the  farm.  The 
object  is  to  prevent  the  milk  from  being  contaminated 
by  harmful  bacteria. 

There  should  be  no  open  doorways  between  the  two 
stables.  House  flies  breed  in  horse  manure  and  they 
are  the  dirtiest  and  filthiest  of  all  our  common  insects. 
16 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


17 


flH- 


WH- 


IS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


19 


Milk  inspectors  don 't  like  to  see  house  flies  floating  in 

a  pail  of  milk.  It  is  an  indication  of  poor  management. 

Ventilation  is  another  sanitary  requirement.     Old 


Figure  6. — End  Elevation  of  a  Typical  Curb-Roof  Dairy  Stable 
and  Storage  Barn.  The  Concrete  Foundations  Extends  3%  Feet 
Above  Grade 

timber  frame  barns  boarded  up  and  down  are  pro- 
vided with  ventilation  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  boards. 
But  a  modern  air-tight  building  like  this  that  is  built 
to  house  pure  bred  cows  comfortably  in  winter  must 


20 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


have  an  automatic  supply  and  discharge  of  air  work- 
ing continuously  night  and  day  so  long  as  the  stable 
is  occupied. 


•*e,~-#'-6"£6r<4   M9n 
\ctted  to  fAch   Jf 
of     rafters 

ftvrt    3/>actc(  £4 


Figure  7. — Cross  Section  of  Curb-Roof  Dairy  Barn,  Showing 
Rafter  Construction  and  Bracing 

In  this  cow  barn  the  supply  of  fresh  air  is  taken  in 
through  supply  pipes  placed  in  the  outside  walls.  Reg- 
isters placed  between  the  stable  windows  admit  air 
from  the  outside  and  the  intake  pipes  distribute  the 
air  at  the  stable  ceiling  where  it  flows  out  over  the 
cows. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  21 

Outlet  ventilator  pipes  also  are  built  into  the  walls 
to  draw  the  foul  air  out  and  discharge  it  through  the 
metal  ventilator  hoods  perched  on  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

Outlet  ventilator  pipes  when  properly  proportioned 
and  well  made  act  like  chimney  flues.  The  draft 
depends  upon  the  propensity  of  warm  air  to  go  up. 
Tho  stable  is  warmed  by  the  body  heat  of  the  animals. 
Fresh  air  thus  admitted  from  outdoors  loads  up  with 
impurities  and  settles  near  the  floor  towards  the  outer 
v/alls  where  the  outlet  openings  are  placed. 

It  is  important  that  the  outlet  flues  be  made  tight 
to  prevent  leakage  of  cold  air  into  the  pipes,  because 
cold  air  has  a  tendency  to  go  down  into  the  stable. 

Metal  pipes  radiate  heat  in  cold  weather  which 
interferes  with  the  draft  by  reducing  the  temperature. 
Wooden  pipes  are  better  than  metal  if  they  are  made 
with  tight  joints.  Wall  board  is  used  with  success. 
Wall  board  is  cut  in  long  lengths  the  right  width  and 
is  nailed  to  wooden  corner  strips  two  by  two  inches  in 
diameter.  All  joints  are  cemented  so  there  is  no 
opening  except  the  inlet  at  the  bottom  and  the  outlet 
at  the  top.  Wall  board  should  be  made  in  cylindrical 
form  for  such  purposes. 

Outlet  ventilator  pipes  in  a  stable  of  this  size  should 
be  about  twenty  inches  square,  inside  measurement,  or 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter  if  made  round. 

Inlet  ventilators  are  more  numerous  and  they  may 
be  smaller  in  size.  Inlet  supply  flues  do  not  depend 
upon  temperature  to  create  a  draft.  The  wind  will 
drive  through  the  intakes.  For  this  reason  they  should 
be  fitted  with  sliding  gates  to  regulate  the  openings. 
It  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air  according 
to  the  weather.  This  is  just  as  important  as  to  regu- 


22  FARM  BUILDINGS 

late  the  supply  of  feed.  If  the  outlet  flues  are  well 
made  and  properly  proportioned  they  will  work  auto- 
matically, but  the  intakes  must  be  watched. 

Some  metal  ventilator  hoods  help  the  draft  by 
directing  the  wind  currents  upward  to  create  suction. 
Aspiration,  or  the  passing  of  a  current  of  air  across 
the  open  top  of  a  pipe,  also  helps  to  create  an  upward 
draft. 


Figure  8. — Concrete  Dairy  Stable^and  Concrete  Barnyard 

The  fences  are  not  shown.  The  barnyard  is  paved 
with  concrete  laid  on  two  levels.  A  fence  confines  the 
cows  to  the  paved  yard  during  muddy  weather.  There 
are  feed  racks  to  use  when  needed,  and  there  are  open 
sheds  to  the  left.  A  good  demonstration  of  the  impor- 
tance of  concrete  in  modern  dairy  farming. 


CHAPTER  IV 

A  LARGE  DAIRY  AND  HORSE  BARN 

This  combination  dairy  and  horse  barn  is  scienti- 
fically correct  in  principle  and  detail  of  construction 
and  equipment  according  to  the  dictates  of  modern 
dairy  knowledge  and  practice. 

From  the  excavations  to  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and 
from  the  silos  at  one  end  of  the  barn  to  the  manure 
shed  at  the  other  end  every  detail  of  plan  and  eleva- 
tion has  been  tried  out  repeatedly  and  finally  adopted 
into  the  barn  that  is  represented  by  Figures  9,  10,  11, 
12  and  13. 

Concrete  Foundations. — It  is  easy  to  make  a  con- 
crete foundation  for  a  farm  building  where  the  mate- 
rials may  be  cheaply  obtained. 

The  wall  footings  are  laid  deep  enough  to  reach 
below  frost.  For*  this  reason  climatic  conditions  are 
always  considered  when  making  a  foundation.  ' '  Foot- 
ing" is  the  builder's  term  for  the  wide  base  of  a  wall 
and  it  means  permanency. 

When  the  earth  bank  is  dug  square,  straight  and 
plumb,  the  inside  wooden  form  only  is  necessary  up 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  form  is  made  of 
material  that  is  afterwards  used  in  the  building.  Con- 
crete is  heavy  and  it  should  be  tamped,  which  brings 
considerable  pressure  against  the  form. 

A  neat  finish  on  the  outside  of  the  wall  above 
23 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


25 


B 

f 


II 

i! 

II 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


PANEL  BETWEEN  TEU55E5 

Figure  11. — Detail   Showing  the  Plank  Frame  Construction  of 
Dairy  Barn  Shown  in  Figure  9 

ground,  whether  simply  a  foundation  wall  or  a  base- 
ment, means  a  good  deal  in  the  appearance  of  the 
building.  It  costs  but  little  more  to  set  a  building 
up  high  enough  to  make  a  basement.  A  foundation 
wall  is  usually  three  and  a  half  feet,  while  a  base- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


27 


ment  wall  is  about  eight  feet  or  eight  feet,  six  inches, 
according  to  the  use  for  which  the  basement  is  in- 
tended. It  costs  little  more  to  make  the  inside  form 
high  enough  for  a  basement  wall.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  outside  form,  because  even  a  foundation 
wall  is  carried  up  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 


Figure  12. — Cross  Section 

this  requires  some  kind  of  outside  form.  Both  forms 
are  made  level  and  true  on  top  so  that  the  finished 
wall  is  struck  off  even. 

In  mixing  materials  for  a  basement  wall,  a  great 
deal  of  stone  should  be  used.  Stone  is  handled  more 
quickly  than  concrete,  and  it  makes  a  stronger  wall 


28 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


when  stones  are  used  and  well  surrounded  with  thin 
concrete  that  fills  the  crevices  and  sticks  to  the  stones. 
The  one  rule  in  mixing  concrete  that  applies  in  all 
cases  is  to  use  a  little  more  than  enough  cement  to  fill 
the  spaces  between  the  grains  of  sand,  and  a  little  more 


Figure  13. — Detail  Showing  the  Way  One  of  the  Main  Trusses 
is  Constructed.  A  Truss  Like  This  is  Placed  Every  12  Feet  In 
the  Length  of  the  Barn  to  Act  as  a  Stiffener.  Between  These 
Trusses  the  Rafters  are  Braced  in  the  Ordinary  Plank  Frame 
Manner. 

than  enough  sand  and  cement  to  fill  the  spaces  between 
the  particles  of  gravel  or  aggregate,  and  lastly,  use  a 
wet  mixture  of  cement,  sand  and  aggregate  to  bind 
together  the  larger  stones  used  in  the  wall. 

This  is  easily  and  quickly  done  by  first  placing  a 
layer  of  stone  to  start  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  placing 
the  stones  so  that  they  touch  each  other.  Then,  dump 
in  soft  concrete  sufficient  to  fill  all  the  spaces  between 
and  to  cover  the  stones  with  a  layer  of  concrete  an 


FARM  BUILDINGS  29 

inch  deep  or  more.     Then  another  layer  of  stones  is 
piled  in,  and  the  concrete  added  as  before. 

The  larger  stones,  of  course,  should  be  selected  for 
the  bottom  of  the  wall,  where  it  widens  out  to  make 
the  footing.  Each  layer  of  stones  and  cement  should 
be  tamped.  If  the  stones  are  joggled  with  the  tamper 
the  air  is  forced  out,  the  cement  settles  around  and 
adheres  to  the  stones  and  makes  a  better  wall.  Above 
ground  a  crow  bar  is  used  to  pry  the  stones  so  that 
the  concrete  mortar  will  make  a  smooth  surface. 

Provision  is  made  for  placing  the  basement  windows 
after  the  inside  form  -is  anchored.  The  easiest  way  is 
to  mark  on  the  form  where  the  window  frame  should 
be  placed.  When  the  cement  work  is  up  to  the  bottom 
of  the  window  sills  then  the  frames  are  set  on  the 
fresh  cement  and  are  tacked  to  the  inside  form  with 
eight  penny  nails  from  the  inside. 

It  is  difficult  to  work  the  concrete  around  under  the 
window  sill  if  the  frames  are  put  in  position  too  soon. 
The  frames  work  better  if  they  are  made  the  full 
thickness  of  the  wall  so  that  they  fit  between  the  inside 
and  outside  forms.  A  neat  window  casing  is  then 
easily  fitted  and  nailed  against  the  window  frame 
flush  with  the  surface  of  the  wall. 

The  outside  form  is  held  in  place  by  wires.  When 
the  wall  is  complete  the  wires  are  cut  close  to  the 
wall.  To  make  a  neat  finish  the  wall  is  troweled  over 
with  cement  mortar.  The  sooner  this  is  done  after  the 
concrete  wall  has  set  the  better  it  will  stick.  Usually 
it  is  good  practice  to  embed  the  sills  in  fresh  cement 
mortar  on  top  of  the  wall  as  soon  as  the  concrete  is 
hard  enough.  The  sills  should  remain  in  place  undis- 
turbed for  a  few  days  before  nailing  the  .ioists  and. 


30  FARM  BUILDINGS 

studding  to  them.  Fresh  concrete  is  easily  injured  by 
pounding. 

Plank  Frame  Construction. — The  best  and  cheapest 
way  to  build  the  superstructure  of  a  barn  is  to  make 
the  frame  of  two-inch  planks. 

Plank  frame  construction  was  adopted  because 
planks  are  carried  in  stock  in  all  lumber  yards,  but 
timber  must  be  ordered  from  a  saw  mill.  Special 
orders  cause  delay  and  add  to  the  expense. 

The  advantages  of  these  skeleton  frames  developed 
with  use.  Two-inch  pieces  from  two  by  fours  up  to  the 
largest  planks  are  easily  handled.  They  are  put 
together  in  twos,  threes,  or  thicker  in  the  making  of 
strong  girders  where  strength  is  needed,  and  they  are 
stretched  out  singly  and  opposed  in  pairs  in  truss 
work.  Great  arches  are  formed  by  meeting  two 
trusses  together  at  the  apex.  Two  men  are  sufficient 
at  a  plank  frame  "raising"  unless  greater  speed  is 
wanted. 

Ventilation. — I>omestic  animals  require  fresh  air 
every  minute,  pure  water  several  times  a  day  and 
food  at  frequent  intervals. 

They  would  die  in  five  minutes  without  air.  With 
plenty  of  fresh  air  they  could  live  a  week  without 
water.  If  supplied  with  air  and  water  they  might 
live  several  weeks  without  food.  This  means  that  pure 
air  is  of  more  importance  than  both  food  and  water. 
Pure  water  is  of  more  importance  than  food.  But  all 
three  are  necessary  to  promote  profitable  growth  and 
development. 

To  provide  proper  ventilation  this  barn  is  fitted 
with  intake  air  ducts  and  large  outlet  ventilators. 
The  intakes  are  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  building 


FARM  BUILDINGS  31 

and  the  ventilator  flues  start  up  from  the  four  cor- 
ners of  the  stable. 

The  system  spreads  fresh  air  all  through  the  stable. 
The  body  heat  of  the  animals  keeps  it  in  motion.  As 
it  loads  up  with  carbonic  acid  gas  it  becomes  heavier 
and  settles  near  the  floor  in  the  coldest  corners  of  the 
big  stable.  There  is  a  draft  up  through  the  out  take 
flues  which  carries  it  out  and  discharges  it  through 
the  ventilator  hoods  on  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

Milking  Machinery. — Milking  machines  are  great 
labor  savers.  One  man  can  attend  to  three  or  four 
machines  and  each  machine  is  capable  of  milking  six 
or  eight  cows  per  hour.  A  battery  of  three  machines 
will  require  one  horsepower  but  it  is  better  to  provide 
two  horsepower  so  that  additional  machines  may  be 
added  without  changing  the  engine.  Milking  machines 
are  simple  in  operation  and  easily  managed  but  some 
knowledge  of  the  principles  upon  which  they  operate 
is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  good  working  order. 

Manure  Carriers. — Labor  saving  machinery  to  han- 
dle manure  commences  by  taking  the  liquids  and  the 
solids  from  behind  the  cows.  The  manure  is  dumped 
automatically  into  the  spreader  from  which  it  is 
unloaded  and  spread  by  horsepower  in  the  field.  Great 
improvement  has  been  made  in  overhead  tracks  and 
cars  during  recent  years.  The  best  makes  work  easily 
without  binding  or  unnecessary  friction.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  horse  forks,  hay  carriers  and  feed 
carriers. 

General  Description. — The  illustrations  show  a 
dairy  barn  thirty-six  feet  in  width,  eighty-six  feet  in 
length  and  fifty  feet  high  from  the  stable  floor  to  the 
peak. 


32  FARM  BUILDINGS 

The  stable  is  arranged  to  face  the  cows  in  towards 
a  center  feed  alley.  The  cow  stalls  are  separated  by 
steel  partitions  and  are  fitted  with  improved  stan- 
chions hung  to  steel  manger  frames. 

The  horse  stalls  are  enclosed  with  steel  fences  and 
steel  gates.  They  are  fitted  with  steel  hay  racks  and 
feed  boxes. 

There  is  a  stairway  leading  from  the  horse  depart- 
ment to  the  floor  above,  landing  in  front  of  the  upper 
side  door.  This  door  is  for  light  and  ventilation  and 
to  admit  the  blower  pipe  at  threshing  time  to  blow 
straw  into  the  storage  loft. 

The  horse  stable  is  shut  off  from  the  cow  stable  by 
a  partition  and  solid  doors  which  are  kept  shut  except 
when  the  stables  are  being  cleaned. 

There  is  considerable  machinery  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  barn  to  save  hand  labor  and  to  do  the 
chores  quickly  and  better. 

The  stable  ceiling  is  lined  with  wall  board  and  is 
painted  to  make  it  air  tight  and  vermin  proof. 

Between  the  stable  and  the  silos  are  two  feed  rooms 
and  a  wash  room  for  the  men.  In  this  wash  room  are 
lockers  for  their  white  milking  suits  and  there  is  a 
shower  bath  and  wash  bowls  with  hot  and  cold  run- 
ning water  on  tap. 

The  dairy  house  is  a  small  separate  building  at  some 
distance  from  the  stable.  It  is  built  according  to 
requirements  laid  down  by  pure  milk  regulations. 


CHAPTER  V 

DAIRY  BARN  FOR  TWENTY-EIGHT  COWS 

This  is  a  dairy  barn  thirty-six  feet  in  width  by 
sixty-four  feet  long.  Figure  14. 

It  is  designed  to  meet  the  most  rigid  sanitary 
requirements  as  well  as  to  provide  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  cow  comfort  with  the  least  possible 
expenditure  of  labor  in  attending  to  their  numerous 
wants. 

A  labor-saving  barn  is  required  to  house  the  cows 
and  the  fodder  to  feed  them.  There  is  machinery  to 
pack  the  feed  into  the  great  storage  mow  in  summer 
and  into  the  silo.  There  is  also  machinery  to  get  the 
feed  out  in  winter  and  carry  it  to  the  mangers  as 
needed. 

The  foundation  is  built  of  concrete  from  the  wall 
footings  up  four  feet  above  the  concrete  stable  floor. 
The  footings  are  shown  two  feet  wide  to  give  them 
plenty  of  surface  to  prevent  settling.  There  is  con- 
siderable weight  on  a  wall  under  a  building  of  this 
size  and  height  and  it  is  supposed  to  stay  exactly  as 
placed. 

Great  care  is  taken  in  starting  the  floor,  as  per- 
manency depends  upon  getting  the  right  start.  After 
the  ground  is  carefully  leveled  it  is  wet  down  to  settle 
it  all  over  alike.  In  putting  down  the  foundation  for 
the  wall,  it  is  necessary  to  do  considerable  digging 
33 


34 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS  35 

which  loosens  the  ground  in  places.  Such  spots  can 
be  packed  down  hard  only  with  water. 

After  the  earth  is  settled  and  leveled  it  may  be  laid 
off  into  divisions  bordered  by  the  manger  and  gutter 
forms. 

The  back  of  each  manger  is  built  against  two  by  six 
pieces  fastened  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The 
top  edges  of  each  of  these  planks  touch  the  line  as 
shown  in  the  detail  floor  drawings,  Figure  17,  so  the 
cement  manger  is  struck  off  level.  The  line  is  carefully 
leveled  and  the  level  mark  is  snapped  against  the  side- 
walls  with  a  chalk  line  so  that  the  line  may  be  quickly 
stretched  crosswise  of  the  stable  at  any  time  to  test 
the  work  by  measuring  from  the  line  down  to  different 
parts  of  the  floor. 

The  line  on  the  drawing  shows  a  drop  of  six  inches 
immediately  behind  the  manger  and  seven  inches  at 
the  gutter  and  fifteen  inches  to  the  bottom  of  the 
gutter,  so  it  is  always  easy  to  prove  the  grading  of  the 
floor  at  any  stage  during  the  progress  of  the  work. 
Likewise  horizontal  measurements  are  given  which 
show  the  cow  standing  portion  of  the  stable  floor  to 
be  five  feet  in  width  from  the  center  of  the  back  divi- 
sion of  the  manger  to  the  edge  of  the  gutter. 

In  doing  work  of  this  kind  it  is  always  necessary 
to  have  a  place  of  beginning  to  establish  grades  and 
measurements.  In  this  stable  the  proper  starting 
place  is  the  manger. 

All  cow  mangers  are  placed  low  down.  Cows  nat- 
urally feed  from  the  ground  so  it  is  in  keeping  with 
their  established  habits  to  eat  from  the  level  of  their 
front  feet. 

Cow  stable  floors  are  made  the  same  as  sidewalks, 


36 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


Ii 


OS 

$2 


S§  u-3 

si    " 

2 


FARM  BUILDINGS  37 

by  using  two  by  four  strips  to  mark  the  floor  into 
blocks.  The  scantlings  are  spaced  and  leveled  or 
graded  to  fit  the  floor  grade  and  the  concrete  mortar 
is  struck  even  with  the  top  edges  of  the  division  pieces 
to  bring  the  floor  true  to  levels  and  grades. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  formula  for  mixing  con- 
crete for  the  stable  floor  without  knowing  the  quality 
of  the  sand  and  gravel.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  not  to 
use  sand  that  contains  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  clay 
or  mud.  Water  in  excess  of  ordinary  requirements 
will  sometimes  unite  poor  materials  by  washing  the 
sand  so  the  impurities  will  settle.  Wet  concrete  usu- 
ally makes  a  better  job  under  ordinary  conditions. 

After  the  foundation  the  most  particular  part  of  a 
cow  stable  is  the  surface.  It  pays  to  get  good  sharp 
sand  for  the  surface  coat  and  to  lay  it  on  with  a 
trowel  with  considerable  pressure  to  make  it  water- 
proof. Pressure  with  the  trowel  drives  out  the  air 
and  unites  the  particles  of  cement  and  sand  so  closely 
that  water  cannot  enter. 

After  the  floor  is  thoroughly  trowled  it  may  be 
mussed  over  with  a  stubby  broom  to  rough  the  sur- 
face, so  the  cows  won't  slip,  but  this  must  be  done 
carefully.  The  mangers  and  feed  alley  floor  should 
be  finished  smooth  and  all  parts  of  the  floor  should  be 
made  hard. 

The  detail  floor  drawings  show  the  manner  of  lay- 
ing prepared  blocks  into  the  concrete  to  make  an  easy 
floor  that  is  warmer  than  concrete.  A  good  deal 
depends  upon  the  way  the  cows  are  bedded. 

The  big  mow  overhead  is  intended  for  storage  for 
straw  as  well  as  hay.  Dairymen  find  it  necessary  to 
grow  large  quantities  of  grain  to  feed,  to  their  cows. 


38  FARM  BUILDINGS 

At  threshing  time  they  have»many  tons  of  clean  bright 
straw  that  is  valuable  if  it  is  properly  housed.  It  is 
blown  from  the  stacker  into  one  end  of  the  big  mow 
and  lifted  out  in  winter  time  with  the  horse  fork  and 
carried  to  the  mangers  in  the  feed  carrier. 

Cows  will  eat  a  good  deal  of  straw  along  towards 
noon.  They  like  to  pick  it  over  and  munch  the  chaff 
and  finer  parts.  Then  in  the  afternoon  when  the 
stables  are  cleaned  the  mussed  over  straw  in  the 
mangers  is  forked  back  into  the  stalls  for  bedding. 
It  is  also  a  good  liquid  manure  absorbent  as  it  grad- 
ually works  back  into  the  gutters. 

This  already  makes  three  uses  for  clean,  bright 
straw,  but  the  most  valuable  use  is  when  it  is  taken 
in  the  manure  spreaders  while  it  is  soaked  full  of 
liquid  phosphoric  acid  and  ammonia  and  is  spread 
out  on  the  land  to  grow  big  crops  of  corn  and  small 
grain  to  be  followed  by  clover  and  other  legumes. 

A  splendidly  well  made  stable  floor  is  in  this  way 
made  first  aid  to  the  manufacture  of  a  very  valuable 
by-product  of  the  dairy.  Stable  manure  from  grain- 
fed  cows,  made  and  handled  in  this  way,  is  valued  at 
thirty  dollars  per  year  for  each  1,000  pound  cow. 
This  great  value  depends  upon  the  proper  use  of  the 
manure  after  it  is  made  as  well  as  upon  the  way  it  is 
made  and  handled.  Under  scientific  management  the 
manure  from  thirty  cows  may  be  made  to  pay  for  the 
barn. 

Wall  board  is  specified  for  lining  this  stable  above 
the  concrete  wall  for  the  reason  that  wall  board  may 
be  made  air  tight.  An  air  tight  stable  may  be  ven- 
tilated easier  and  better  than  when  there  are  many 
cracks  to  admit  air.  Wall  board  may  be  butted  to- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


gether  to  bring  the  joints  on  the  joists.  These  joints 
are  then  easily  filled  with  putty  and  the  whole  surface 
covered  with  two  coats  of  good  white  lead  and  oil. 


Figure  16. — Cross  Section  Showing  Detail  of  Construction 


When  walls  and  ceilings  are  made  in  this  way  there 
is  no  harbor  for  disease-breeding  bacteria.  The  walls 
may  be  brushed  with  long  handled  brushes  to  remove 
the  little  floating  dust  that  finds  a  lodgment  which 
goes  a  long  way  towards  keeping  the  stable  in  a  sani- 
tary condition. 


40  FARM  BUILDINGS 

For  the  same  reason  all  stall  partitions  and  stan- 
chions are  made  of  iron  and  coated  with  smooth  enamel 
that  may  be  washed  or  wiped  with  damp  cloths  to 
remove  all  bacteria-laden  dust  and  dirt. 

The  supporting  columns  that  carry  the  weight  of 
the  girders  are  of  wrought  iron  filled  with  concrete. 


Figure  17. — Cross  Section  Showing  the  Manner  of  Constructing 
the  Concrete  Floor  and  Wall  and  Stable  Window 

This  makes  a  stiff  solid  support  that  may  be  smooth 
finished  to  correspond  with  the  manger  and  stall 
partitions. 

Each  column  stands  in  cement  in  the  back  line  of 
the  manger  which  really  is  a  continuous  wall  with 
ample  footings  to  support  the  overhead  load.  When 
the  big  mow  is  filled  and  settled  and  filled  to  the  peak 
it  will  hold  more  than  100  tons  of  hay,  so  it  behooves 


FARM  BUILDINGS  41 

the  owner  to  provide  considerable  under  pinning  to 
prevent  settling. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  spacing  works  out  right 
for  three  lengths  of  twelve  foot  joists  to  splice  on  the 
girders.  The  joists  are  two  by  twelves  placed  twenty- 
four  inches  apart  on  centers  and  well  bridged  to  make 
a  solid  floor. 

The  stable  is  lighted  by  twenty  windows  glazed  with 
nine  by  twelve  lights,  nine  lights  to  a  window.  This 
gives  135  square  feet  of  glass,  or  about  four  and  a  half 
feet  to  each  animal  in  the  stable.  It  is  impossible  to 
keep  a  dark  stable  clean. 

The  silo  is  sixteen  feet  in  diameter  and  thirty-six 
feet  high.  It  will  hold  about  140  tons  of  silage,  which 
will  equal  280  days  feeding,  allowing  each  cow  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  silage  per  day. 

Another  silo  is  provided  for  in  the  plan  to  be  built 
sometime  in  the  future  as  the  herd  grows  in  numbers. 
Herds  always  do  increase  when  a  sanitary  dairy  is 
once  started  because  it  pays. 

Plank  frame  construction  is  used  above  the  concrete 
wall.  Planks  are  used  in  different  widths  from  two 
by  fours  to  two  by  tens  for  girders  and  two  by 
twelves  for  floor  joists.  The  girders  are  built  up  by 
bolting  four  planks  together.  They  are  selected 
according  to  the  way  the  grain  runs  and  are  placed 
side  by  side,  breaking  the  splicing  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  continuous  girders  the  whole  length  of  the  barn. 

The  roof  construction  is  self  supporting  on  the  can- 
tilever truss  principle.  Each  pair  of  rafters  forms  an 
independent  truss  reaching  from  one  wall  to  the  other. 
Placing  such  trusses  three  feet  apart  makes  a  strong 
roof  and  a  great  mow  that  is  free  from  obstructions 


42  FARM  BUILDINGS 

so  the  hay  fork  and  hay  tipple  may  work  freely  from 
one  end  of  the  barn  to  the  other. 

Ventilation  pipes  are  arranged  to  carry  out  Pro- 
fessor King's  system  of  ventilating  dairy  stables. 
There  are  inlet  pipes  that  admit  fresh  air  from  out- 
side and  deliver  it  over  the  cows. 

The  outlet  pipes  take  the  foul  air  from  near  the 
floor  behind  the  cows  and  carry  it  up  to  the  peak  of 
the  roof.  The  ventilating  flues  are  connected  at  the 
peak  with  metal  ventilator  hoods  that  regulate  the 
draft  so  the  flow  of  air  through  the  pipes  is  constant 
regardless  of  the  direction  of  the  wind. 


CHAPTER  VI 
DAIRY  BARN  FOE  THIRTY  COWS 

This  barn  shown  in  Figure  18,  is  thirty-six  feet  in 
width,  which  is  a  few  feet  wider  than  older  dairy 
stables,  to  make  room  for  wide  alleys  behind  the  cows 
and  a  feed  alley  of  sufficient  width  to  accommodate  a 
feed  carrier  suspended  from  an  overhead  track. 

A  similar  track  is  fitted  into  the  ceiling  over  the 
rear  alleys  to  support  a  manure  carrier.  This  track 
extends  the  full  length  of  both  manure  gutters  and 
clear  around  both  silos,  where  the  ground  is  supposed 
to  be  low  enough  to  drive  the  manure  spreader  under 
the  carrier  to  dump  the  load.  This  is  a  very  impor- 
tant feature,  and  one  that  is  well  worth  figuring  on 
before  the  building  is  started. 

Between  the  two  silos  and  the  end  of  the  stable  is  a 
feed  room  with  a  low  roof.  It  is  easier  to  build  it  low, 
as  we  avoid  the  barn  cornice.  This  feed  room  is 
divided  into  three  parts  to  make  storage  for  different 
kinds  of  grains. 

The  litter  carrier  track  runs  underneath  a  shute 
that  is  built  in  front  of  the  silo  doors,  so  that  the 
silage  may  be  forked  into  the  shute  above  and  fall 
directly  into  the  carrier.  When  two  men  are  doing 
the  feeding  this  arrangement  saves  one  handling.  The 
man  in  the  silo  gets  the  feed  ready  while  the  man  with 
the  carrier  is  dumping  the  load.  When  he  returns 

43 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


V. DUMP 


46  FARM  BUILDINGS 

with  the  carrier  it  is  filled  almost  instantly  by  the 
man  in  the  silo. 

Likewise  the  bedding  is  forked  down  a  similar  shute 
from  the  storage  mow  into  the  litter  carrier  and  is 
run  through  the  stable  to  the  different  stalls.  All  over- 
head tracks  are  alike,  so  the  litter  carrier  may  be  run 
through  any  of  the  alleys. 

A  good  ventilating  system  is  provided  through  steel 
air  shafts  placed  in  the  walls.  There  are  four  of  these 
ventilating  flues,  which  follow  the  walls  to  the  plates, 
then  follow  the  rafters  to  the  peak,  where  they  are 
topped  with  ventilators  to  secure  a  steady  upward 
draft. 

The  silos  are  fourteen  feet  in  diameter  by  thirty- 
two  feet  in  height.  The  capacity  of  two  silos  of  this 
size  is  rather  more  than  necessary  to  feed  thirty  cows 
during  the  regular  silo  feeding  season,  but  silage  is 
being  used  for  summer  feed  as  well  as  winter  feed, 
also  the  number  of  animals  on  a  dairy  farm  where 
silage  is  fed,  increase  rapidly.  It  is  seldom  that  any 
silage  is  wasted. 

It  is  such  a  valuable  feed  that  some  use  is  found  for 
it  some  time  during  the  year.  For  this  reason  it  is 
advisable  to  provide  plenty  of  silage  capacity.  Two 
small  silos  are  better  than  one  large  one,  as  the  silage 
may  be  kept  fresher. 

Above  the  stable  is  the  large  storage  mow  which, 
owing  to  the  construction  of  the  roof,  is  free  from 
cross  timbers, — so  the  hay  fork  may  be  run  directly 
through  from  one  end  of  the  barn  to  the  other.  The 
height  of  the  peak  and  the  shape  of  the  roof  is  espe- 
cially designed  to  give  large  capacity  for  hay  and 
straw. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


47 


It  is  customary  to  put  more  windows  in  cow  stables 
than  formerly.  This  stable  is  designed  for  a  little 
more  than  four  square  feet  of  glass  per  cow.  The 
windows  being  placed  behind  the  cows  give  plenty  of 
light  at  milking  time. 


Figure  20. — Cross  Section  Showing  Detail  of  the  Stable  Floor. 
Barn  Floor  and  Plank  Frame  Roof  Construction 


Steel  stall  partitions  separate  the  cows,  and  the 
steel  frame  over  the  manger  forms  a  hanger  for  the 
light  swinging  stanchions.  This  steel  frame  also  pro- 
vides places  for  the  record  sheet  for  keeping  daily 
account  of  the  milk  that  each  cow  produces. 

Inside  the  stable  the  walls  are  made  as  smooth  as 
possible  to  prevent  lodgment  of  dust.  Dust  harbors 
bacteria,  and  bacteria  make  trouble  for  dairymen. 
That  is  one  great  advantage  of  using  iron  stall  par- 
titions— there  is  little  room  for  the  lodgment  of  dust. 
They  are  easily  dusted  or  washed  or  wiped  with  a 


48  '     FARM  BUILDINGS 

damp  cloth.  Dairymen  are  becoming  very  particular 
in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  stable  is  kept. 
It  is  impossible  to  keep  a  stable  clean  unless  it  is 
designed  and  built  for  cleanliness. 


CHAPTER  VII 
MONITOR  EOOF  DAIRY  STABLE 

For  ventilation  in  summer  a  monitor  roof  is  better 
than  other  forms  of  dairy  stable  construction.  Where 
the  hot  weather  continues  through  the  spring,  summer 
and  fall,  dairymen  are  looking  for  the  coolest  way 
possible  to  build  their  dairy  stables. 

The  stable  shown  in  Figure  21  has  all  the  sanitary 
stable  fixtures  required  by  the  most  rigid  inspection 
rules.  These  rules  by  the  way,  are  not  unreasonable 
when  they  are  rightly  understood.  Sometimes  inspect- 
ors are  too  aggressive,  some  are  too  ignorant  to  know 
right  from  wrong,  but  taking  inspection  as  it  embraces 
the  whole  country  it  is  working  splendidly  for  the 
benefit  of  honest  dairymen. 

Particular  consumers  are  demanding  cleaner  milk. 
They  are  beginning  to  understand  that  it  costs  money 
to  be  clean  and  they  are  learning  to  pay  the  price. 
Many  city  people  realize  that  it  is  cheaper  to  pay  an 
extra  cent  or  two  per  quart  for  milk  than  to  pay 
more  money  to  the  doctors  and  to  lose  time  while 
convalescing. 

Like  all  good  dairy  stables  this  manner  of  building 
requires  a  good  solid  foundation  of  concrete  which 
includes  the  dairy  floor.  The  outside  concrete  walls 
and  the  supporting  piers  under  the  mangers  are  built 
first  and  carefully  leveled  on  top.  The  ground  between 
the  walls  is  then  wet  down  and  made  solid. 
49 


50 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS  51 

Stable  floors  usually  are  level  from  end  to  end 
except  the  bottom  of  the  gutters  behind  the  cows. 
Gutters  are  given  a  fall  of  about  one  inch  to  twenty 
feet  on  the  bottom  to  drain  out  at  the  end  of  the 
building  when  the  gutters  are  washed  with  the  hose. 


r/K)NT  ELEVATION 
Figure  22. — Showing  End  View  of  Monitor  Roof  Stable 

Grading  the  ground  crossways  of  the  building  calls 
for  measurements  to  bring  the  mangers  up  to  grade 
and  the  gutters  down  to  their  proper  places.  One  way 
to  test  the  work  as  it  proceeds  is  to  make  two  tem- 
plates, one  as  a  guide,  between  the  outside  wall  and 
the  center  piers  and  the  other  template  to  reach  across 
the  mangers  and  feed  alley  from  each  center  pier  to 
its  opposite  mate. 

These  templates  are  built  up  by  using  narrow  strips 
of  wood  having  straight  edges.  The  points  of  con- 
tact for  the  templates  are  the  top  surface  of  the 
finished  foundation  walls  and  the  tops  of  the  center 
piers. 

The  lines  followed  are  the  face  surface  lines  of  the 
finished  floor.  From  the  inside  of  the  foundation 
walls  of  the  manure  alley,  the  floor  should  slope  to 
the  edges  of  the  gutters.  From  the  backs  of  the 


FAKM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


64  FARM  BUILDINGS 

mangers  the  standing,  or  stall  floors,  slope  back  to  the 
gutters.  The  center  alley  floor  and  the  bottom  of  the 
mangers  are  on  a  level  with  each  other. 

These  templates  are  first  used  to  grade  the  ground, 
afterwards  they  are  used  to  set  the  stakes  and  forms 
for  the  concrete  floor.  The  top  edges  of  the  two  by 
fours  used  for  forms  are  placed  to  touch  the  bottom 
edges  of  the  templates,  when  the  soft  cement  floor 
surface  is  struck  off  with  a  straight  edge  even  with 
the  tops  of  the  two  by  four  forms;  then  the  finished 
floor  conforms  to  the  floor  line  as  shown  in  the  cross 
section  drawing,  Figure  24. 

The  floor  plan,  Figure  23,  shows  the  stable  to  be 
thirty-six  feet  in  width  and  forty  feet  in  length.  The 
width  has  been  worked  out  carefully  and  may  be  con- 
sidered standard. 

The  manure  alleys  are  supposed  to  be  kept  clean 
at  milking  time  and  there  are  manure  carriers  and 
hose  sprinklers  and  scrubbing  brushes  to  assist  in  the 
cleansing  operations.  The  space  between  the  cows  and 
the  outside  wall  as  shown  is  sufficient  to  operate  these 
different  mechanical  labor  savers  to  advantage. 

There  are  windows  enough  to  light  this  part  of  the 
stable  effectively,  partly  to  reveal  any  dirt  and  partly 
because  considerable  light  is  wanted  at  milking  time. 
Cows  do  better  in  a  bright  stable. 

Modern  dairy  stables  are,  built  not  only  to  furnish 
a  comfortable  feeding  and  milking  shelter,  but  to 
supply  conditons  that  are  favorable  to  the  use  of 
dairy  machinery  including  milking  machines. 

Labor  saving  dairy  machinery  has  done  away  with 
so  much  drudgery  that  a  large  herd  of  milking  cows 


FARM  BUILDINGS  55 

may  be  better  cared  for  with  less  expenditure  of  hand 
labor  than  a  small  dairy  demanded  a  few  years  ago. 

The  length  of  this  -stable  is-  sufficient  to  hold  twenty 
cows.  It  may  be>  extended  to  twice  o-r  three  times  the 
length  if  that  much  room  is  needed.  The  same  width 
is  maintained,  but  lengthwise  the  plan  is  extremely 
elastic. 

If  fifty  or  more  cows  are  stabled,  however,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  build  another  silo.  Silage  is  the  best  and 
cheapest  cow  feed  and  the  handiest  to  store  and 
deliver. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  silage  enough  to  feed  at 
milking  time  the  year  around.  A  full  day's  silage 
ration  for  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  is  reckoned 
at  forty  pounds,  but  when  silage  is  fed  only  at  milking 
time  to  keep  the  cows  quiet  and  contented,  probably 
an, average  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  pounds  will  be 
sufficient.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the  way  the 
cows  are  cared  for  between  milking  periods. 

This  plan  provides  for  a  covered  passage  way  which 
connects  the  stable  with  the  silo.  The  silo  delivery 
shute  comes  down  into  this  feed  room  and  the  feed 
carrier  track  extends  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  silos, 
so  it  is  easy  to  load  the  carrier  directly  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shute  and  to  run  it  clear  through  the  feed 
alley,  dumping  the  necessary  amount  before  each  cow 
as  it  goes  along. 

The  new  feed  carriers  are  much  larger  than  the  old 
ones  and  they  have  hinged  sides  that  may  be  lowered 
to  slide  the  feed  into  the  cow  mangers.  The  width  of 
the  car  with  the  wings  extended  should  fit  the  space 
between  the  mangers  so  that  feed  will  drop  into  them 
and  not  fall  short  nor  shoot  over. 


56 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


If  the  stable  is  made  extra  long  and  feed  carriers 
of  greater  capacity  are  needed,  then  the  feed  carrier 
cars  may  be  made  longer,  but  the  proper  width  should 
be  maintained. 

The  silo  shute  may  be  fitted  at  the  bottom  with  a 
hopper  to  hold  the  silage  up  from  the  floor.  The  feed 
carrier  may  then  be  run  under  the  hopper  and  loaded 
by  pulling  a  slide  to  let  the  silage  fall  through. 


BOARD 


Figure  25. — Side  View  Showing  Plan  for  Building  a  Hayfork 
Hood  to  Project  from  Peak  of  a  Storage  Barn.  The  Jack -Rafters 
form  a  Brace  to  Support  the  End  of  the  Hay-Track  Beam 

HAYFORK    HOOD. 

It  is  easy  to  frame  a  hayfork  hood  extension  to  a 
barn  roof  by  extending  the  ridgeboard  five  feet  beyond 
the  wall  rafter.  The  ridgeboard  is  supported  by  two 
pairs  of  jack-rafters  as  shown  in  Figures  25  and  26. 
The  outer  jacks  carry  the  barge  board  effect  around 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


the  point  of  the  hood.     The  hay-track  is  hung  by  long 
bolts  reaching  down  from  the  ridgeboard  extension. 

BUILDING  SCAFFOLD  BRACKET 

Two  pieces  of  two  by  four,  four  feet  long  each, 
halved  and  bolted  together  at  the  corner,  makes  the 

BDGE'BOARD''3HOULD-  EXTIND 
5AKN  8  FEET. 


PLAM 

Figure  26. — Top  View  of  the  Hay-Track  Roof  Extension  Showing 
the  Ridgeboard  and  Supporting  Jack-Rafters 

cheapest,  safest  and  most  convenient  scaffold  bracket. 
There  are  four  braces  of  one  by  four  nailed  to  the 
two  by  four  pieces,  as  shown  in  Figure  27.  Either 
a  two  by  four  or  a  four  by  four  is  used  for  the  leg, 
according  to  the  height  of  the  scaffold.  The  leg  is  not 
fastened.  It  fits  snugly  between  the  four  side  braces 
and  takes  any  slant  necessary  to  raise  the  scaffold  to 
the  proper  height. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 
DAIRY    STALL   AND    MANGER 


Figure  28  shows  a  cross  section  through  a  dairy 
stall  and  manger  and  gutter.  The  dimensions  are 
marked.  Cork  brick  are  sometimes  used  for  the 


Figure  27.— Building  Bracket  Made  of  2x4  Pieces  Put  Together 
at  Right  Angles  with  Diagonal  Braces.  The  Supporting  Leg 
Fits  Between  the  Four  Diagonal  Braces 


Figure  28.— Detail  of  Dairy  Stable  Floor  and  Stall  Construc- 
tion. In  this  Cross  Section  Cork  Brick  are  Shown  as  a  Cushion 
Intended  for  Animals  Which  Remain  in  the  Stable  Long  Hours. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  59 

standing  floor  for  cows  because  cork  is  warmer  and 
it  is  more  pliable  or  springy.  Cork  brick  should  be 
carefully  laid  in  asphaltum  to  prevent  filth  from 
accumulating  in  the  cracks  between.  This  kind  of 
stall  floor  is  somewhat  expensive,  but  for  a  valuable 
animal  the  extra  cost  may  be  justified. 

A  MODERN  DAIRY  BARN 

Figure  29  shows  a  cross  section  through  a  modern 
dairy  barn  thirty-six  feet  wide.  The  lettering  and 
figures  on  the  drawing  give  sizes  of  planks  used  in  the 


2/6  TIE.   U-0    WELL  WILED  TO 
EVEPr  .SET  OF  R4FTEP.5. 

I4:0'|_ONG. 
24-  ON  CENTERS. 


WELL  NAILfLD  TO  EVEPY 
PAFTEP  AND  STUDDING. 

'.STUDDING  i3:0'LONG 
24'  ON  CENTEP 


GIPDER 
3'IPON  COLUMNS 


Figure  29. — Cross  Section  Showing  Complete  Detail  of  Concrete 
Stable  Floor  Construction  with  Footings  and  Center  Piers.  Also 
Heavy  Girders,  Side  Walls  and  Rafter  Trusses. 


60  FARM  BUILDINGS 

upper  works.  The  stable  is  made  air  tight  and  bacteria 
proof  according  to  the  best  dairy  practice.  This  type 
of  gambrel  roof  is  much  used. 


JWWCK 


i 


-2PCS  tx& 
•.5ZPARATAR  BLOCKS 


% 

"  'ipcme' 


TPUJ3LS  SPACED  TCOM  t2T01fcFT  /PAPT 


CONCPETZ  F100B 


I 


Figure  30. — Section  Through  a  Large  Storage  Barn  Designed 
for  a  Farm  Where  Considerable  Alfalfa  is  Grown.  These  Trusses 
are  Placed  from  12  to  16  Feet  Apart,  According  to  the  Size  of 
the  Barn 

CROSS  SECTION  OP  STORAGE  BARN  SHOWING  THE  BRACING 

Such  a  barn  may  be  constructed  of  light  material, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  place  a  braced  bent  about  every 
sixteen  feet,  as  shown  in  Figure  30.  This  plan  shows 


FARM  BUILDINGS  61 

up  and  down  boarding,  with  or  without  battons.  Bat- 
tons  add  to  the  appearance  but  sometimes  ventilation 
is  of  more  account.  The  good  appearance  of  a  farm 
building  should  never  be  neglected  to  save  a  little 
expense  at  time  of  building.  The  illustration  shows  a 
barn  truss  thirty-six  feet  in  width  and  forty  feet  high 
to  the  peak. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
NEW  MODELS  FOE  FARM  BABNS 

ROUND    CURB-ROOF    BARN. — ELLIPTICAL     OR    EGG-SHAPED 
BARN. — AUDITORIUM    BARN. SHEEP  BARN. 

ROUND  CURB-ROOF  BARN 

To  build  a  round  barn,  take  a  silo  and  put  a  barn 
around  it.  Formerly  silos  were  square  or  rectangular ; 
they  are  all  made  round  today.  Some  barns  are  made 
around  some  silos.  Usually  such,  barns  are  built  with 
expensive  curb-roofs. 

ELLIPTICAL  OF  EGG-SHAPED  BARN 

A  new  round  barn  is  to  be  rounded  elliptically, 
from  sill  to  apex,  as  well  as  to  be  circular ;  made  egg- 
shape  with  the  small  end  at  the  top  and  the  big  end 
smashed  down  hard  on  the  ground  to  make  it  sit  up 
straight,  as  shown  in  Figure  31. 

The  silo  is  made  of  two  by  six  studding  boarded 
around  with  thin  boards  sprung  into  place.  Two  thick- 
nesses of  boards  are  used,  breaking  joints  with  building 
paper  between.  The  hay  tipple  runs  half  way  around 
the  silo  in  both  directions  and  dumps  the  hay  where 
it  is  wanted.  The  hay-track  takes  the  same  upward 
curve  as  the  roof  and  the  fork  drops  the  hay  on  the 
center  of  the  tipple.  This  plan  saves  running  a  cir- 
cular hay-track  around  under  the  roof.  Filling  the 
silo  requires  a  silage  carrier  instead  of  a  blower  pipe. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


63 


Round  barns  may  be  built  cheaper  than  barns  with 
corners  having  the  same  capacity  because  a  circle 
includes  a  greater  area  than  any  possible  combina- 
tion of  straight  lines.  The  saving  in  building  a  round, 
or  rounded,  barn  as  compared  with  a  rectangular  barn 


Figure  31. — Round  Barn  with  Silo  in  Center.  The  Hay  Tipple 
Is  Supported  by  a  Track  which  Runs  Nearly  Around  the  Silo  So 
the  Tipple  May  Travel  in  Either  Direction.  Hay  is  Taken  in 
Through  the  Lower  Dormer.  The  Silo  is  Filled  Through  the 
Upper  Dormer  Window 

of  the  same  cubic  foot  capacity  should  be  from  twenty 
to  thirty-five  per  cent.  The  saving  in  the  material 
alone  has  been  figured  at  a  higher  percentage.  Some' 
thing  depends  upon  the  size  and  height  in  each  case. 


64  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Forty  cows  may  be  stabled  in  a  round  barn  sixty 
feet  in  diameter  and  leave  room  for  a  silo  and  a  cir- 
cular feed  room  in  the  center. 

A  round  barn  with  a  round  silo  in  the  center  is 
simply  one  cylinder  inside  of  another,  both  support- 
ing each  other. 

Round  or  rounded  barns  are  so  new  that  propor- 
tions have  not  been  thoroughly  tested  out,  but  on 
general  principles,  it  is  thought  best  not  to  raise  the 
point  of  the  roof  more  than  two-thirds  the  diameter 
of  the  barn.  That  is,  a  sixty-foot  barn  would  be  forty 
feet  in  height,  which  is  high  enough  for  a  good  silo. 
It  is  not  thought  desirable  to  make  a  round  barn  more 
than  ninety  feet  in  diameter  on  the  self-supporting 
curb-roof  plan.  No  builder  has  yet  shown  sufficient 
nerve  to  build  an  egg-shaped  barn  of  any  capacity. 

The  term,  "self  supporting  roof,"  is  a  misnomer  in 
a  way,  because  the  silo  makes  the  best  kind  of  support 
in  the  center,  although  some  builders  claim  that  a  roof 
made  in  this  way  is  plenty  stiff  enough  to  withstand 
the  strongest  winds  without  any  support  other  than 
the  round  shell  of  the  building  itself. 

The  form  of  the  rounded  or  elliptical  roof  takes 
advantage  of  the  tensile  strain  of  timbers  which  is  a 
hundred  times  greater  than  the  bending  strain.  Re- 
sistance to  a  side  strain  on  a  stick  of  timber  is  not 
very  great,  but  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  a  straight 
pull  sufficient  to  tear  apart  sound  pieces  of  building 
timber. 

The  egg-shape  so  far  as  the  roof  is  concerned,  offers 
resistance  from  every  direction.  The  sill  is  built  up 
of  small  segments,  or  bent  strips,  to  form  an  immense 
hoop.  All  of  the  different  strips  of  siding  and  each 


FARM  BUILDINGS  65 

continuous  roof  board  are  parts  of  other  hoops  which 
hold  the  barn  together. 

To  appreciate  a  rounded  bulgy  construction  of  this 
kind,  it  is  only  necessary  to  consider  the  strength  of  a 
barrel  that  is  well  hooped. 

In  regard  to  the  cubic  space  enclosed,  the  dairy 
department  of  the  University  of  Illinois  worked  out 
the  economy  of  building  a  round  barn  for  a  twenty- 
acre  dairy  farm  showing  a  saving  over  a  rectangular 
barn  of  the  same  capacity  amounting  to  twenty-two 
per  cent  in  wall  construction  and  thirty-four  per  cent 
in  cost  of  material  for  the  barn. 

The  Illinois  barn,  however,  is  not  egg-shaped.  It 
is  built  with  a  curb  or  gambrel  in  the  roof  and  with 
rafters  terminating  at  the  eaves  as  in  a  curb-roofed 
rectangular  barn. 

Figures  32  and  33  give  many  details  of  construction 
for  an  egg-shaped  barn.  The  ideas  shown  have  not 
all  been  actually  built  into  a  barn  or  any  other  build- 
ing, but  they  are  theoretically  correct.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  style  of  construction  are  economy  of 
material  and  strength  to  resist  strain  from  either  the 
inside  or  the  outside  better  than  any  other  that  has 
been  invented. 

AUDITORIUM  BARN 

Wagon  bows  have  been  used  for  a  hundred  years 
to  support  the  roofs  of  "prairie  schooners."  The 
same  mechanical  principle  applies  to  the  building  of 
town  halls  and  larger  auditoriums.  And  now  farmers 
are  using  giant  wagon  bows  in  the  building  of  large 
storage  barns. 

The  foundation  is  made  of  concrete  in  the  usual 


66 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


Figure  32. — Floor  Plan  of  Round  Barn,  Showing  Silo  in  the 
Center  and  the  Feed-Alley  Between  the  Silo  and  the  Manger. 
A  Manure  Carrier  Track  Encircles  the  Stalls  as  Shown. 


way  with  one  exception.  The  outside  walls  are  made 
thicker  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  bows,  or,  sometimes 
iron  wall  sockets  are  used.  Sometimes  wooden  sills 
are  embedded  in  soft  concrete  on  top  of  the  walls  and 
the  feet  of  the  bows  are  bolted  to  the  sill. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


67 


Whatever  method  is  used  the  bows  should  be  well 
anchored  at  the  bottom. 

The  bows  or  arches  are  usually  built  up  out  of 
boards  bent  to  a  scribed  circle  so  they  are  all  exactly 
alike.  Sometimes  the  lower  ends  or  legs  of  the  bows 
are  made  straight  for  several  feet  to  lift  the  roof 
higher  without  making  the  barn  too  wide.  \ 


L-LI  I  I   L 


Figure  33. — Diagram  Showing  How  to  Cut  a  Plank  on  a 
Saw  to  Form  a  Curved  Rafter.  The  Two  Pieces  of  the  Plank 
are  Spiked  Together  as  Shown  in  the  Lower  Drawing.  This 
Makes  a  Curved  Rafter  Without  Waste  of  Material. 

The  barn  is  stronger  when  built  without  an  eave 
projection,  as  the  boarding  may  then  be  put  on  con- 
tinuously without  a  break. 

If  the  concrete  wall  is  built  up  high  enough  to 
allow  for  a  basement,  then  the  gutter  is  attached  to 
the  lower  boarding  at  the  top  of  the  wall. 

If  roll  roofing  is  used  the  roof  boards  should  be 
matched  with  tongue  and  groove  and  put  on  smoothly 
to  give  proper  support  to  the  roofing.  Matched  roof 
boards  are  worth  all  they  cost  just  for  extra  stiffness 
regardless  of  the  kind  of  roofing  they  are  covered  with. 


CS  FARM  BUILDINGS 

SHEEP  BARNS 

Sheep  are  the  worst  fresh-air  cranks  among  domes- 
tie  animals.  For  this  reason  a  good  sheep  barn  differs 
from  all  other  farm  buildings. 

Sheep  are  covered  with  warm  wool  in  the  winter 
time  sufficient  to  protect  them  from  severe  cold 
weather  so  long  as  the  atmosphere  remains  dry.  But 
when  the  rains  come  this  same  fleece  of  wool  acts  like 
a  sponge  to  absorb  and  hold  moisture. 

When  the  wool  is  wet  it  must  be  dried  by  evapora- 
tion induced  by  the  body  heat  of  the  sheep.  Evapo- 
ration is  a  cooling  process  so  the  sheep  is  required  to 
eat  more  heat-forming  food,  otherwise  it  must  draw 
upon  its  stored  up  fat  to  dry  its  wool.  In  either  case 
there  is  an  economic  waste  and  the  vitality  of  the 
sheep  is  impaired. 

A  sheep  barn  should  provide  shelter  from  rains  and 
protection  against  cold  north  and  west  winds.  It 
should  also  contain  sufficient  roughage  to  feed  the 
flock  all  winter,  which  means  that  the  main  part  of 
the  building  should  be  high  and  broad,  if  many  sheep 
are  kept,  and  it  should  have  wings  in  the  shape  of 
feeding  sheds  open  to  the  south  and  east, 
i  There  may  be  a  silo  for  the  sheep  alone,  or  silage 
may  be  brought  by  overhead  carrier  from  the  cattle 
department.  Silage  is  just  as  good  for  sheep  as  it  is 
for  cows  or  beef  cattle.  It  is  the  cheapest  roughage, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  roots,  it  is  the  most  suc- 
culent of  winter  feeding  materials  for  farm  live  stock. 

Silage  in  connection  with  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  will 
bring  ewes  through  to  yeaning  time  in  good  condition 
with  little  or  no  grain. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


An  eight-sided  sheep  barn  with  shelter  sheds  and 
yeaning  pens  is  shown  in  Figure  34.  The  posts  are 
set  in  concrete.  The  outside  posts  support  the  plates 
and  the  inside  posts  support  purlin  plates.  The  roof 


Figure  34. — Sheep  Barn  with  Hay  in  the  Center.    There  is  an 
Open  Yard  with  Open  Sheds  Protected  from  the  Cold  Winds. 

is  hipped  from  each  outside  post  to  the  apex.  A  hay 
dormer  is  built  intc  the  most  convenient  side  of  the 
roof  and  the  hay-track  runs  the  hay-carrier  to  the 
center.  Hay  is  dumped  on  the  ground  and  is  stacked 


70  FARM  BUILDINGS 

up  to  the  roof.  Feed  racks  are  built  around  the  hay. 
Feed  is  pitched  down  from  above  and  is  guided  into 
the  feed  racks  by  shutes  attached  to  posts,  one  shute 
to  two  feed  racks.  Gates  are  hinged  to  the  outside 
posts  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  barn  into  small 
pens  when  the  lambs  are  young.  Double  gates,  or 
doors,  are  shown  under  one  shed.  These  doors  are 
hinged  to  fold  back  upon  each  other  when  not  in  use. 
It  is  a  convenient  way  to  have  individual  pens  for 
one  ewe  and  lamb. 


CHAPTER  IX 

MISCELLANEOUS  FAEM  BUILDINGS 
GARAGE  AND   POWER   HOUSE 

It  is  perfectly  natural  that  both  power  and  light 
should  radiate  from  the  farm  garage.  Farming  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  power  proposition.  Farmers  own 
more  automobiles  than  city  people;  farm  trucks  are 
becoming  popular,  and  the  demand  for  small  farm 
tractors  is  greater  than  the  factories  can  supply. 

The  coming  farm  garage  will  combine  storage  for 
these  locomotors  together  with  a  power  plant  and 
machine  shop.  There  will  be  a  dynamo  driven  at  odd 
times  by  the  engine  of  the  farm  tractor.  The  elec- 
tricity so  developed  will  be  stored  in  batteries  and 
paid  out  as  needed,  to  drive  all  the  stationary  machines 
on  the  farm  and  to  light  every  building.  There  will  be 
a  small  electric  motor  stationed  in  each  building  driven 
by  electricity  which  will  be  carried  by  wire  from  the 
central  power  house. 

The  garage  and  power  house  should  be  a  well  ven- 
tilated fireproof  building  made  of  concrete  up  to  the 
plates.  See  Figure  35. 

Fireproof  roofs  are  rather  more  expensive  than  the 
lower  part  of  the  building,  so  that  some  figuring  on 
the  cost  of  fireproof  roofing  materials  may  be  neces- 
sary before  deciding. 

71 


72 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


The  roof  trusses  must  span  the  space  from  one  side 
wall  to  the  other  because  no  posts  are  wanted  in  a 
garage.  Either  king  trusses  or  queen  trusses,  or  a 
modification  of  these  principles,  will  be  required  to 
support  the  roof  according  to  the  width  of  the  build- 
ing and  the  materials  used. 


Figure  35. — Concrete  Farm   Garage,  Showing:  Both  Front  and 
Side  Doors 

The  floor  is  the  most  important  part  of  a  farm 
power  house.  It  should  be  solid,  level,  smooth,  water- 
proof and  well  drained. 

Power  on  a  large  farm  means  tractor,  truck,  and 
automobile,  together  with  dynamo  and  several  small 
motors  to  drive  stationary  machines  such  as  cream 
separator,  fanning  mill,  grindstone,  churn,  sewing 
machine,  washing  machine  and  other  light  work. 
Heavy  driving  such  as  pumping,  feed  grinding,  corn 
shelling,  cutting  silage,  etc.,  will  be  done  by  direct 
belt  or  tumbling  rod. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


73 


The  power  house  on  such  a  farm  should  be  large 
enough  to  hold  the  three  mobile  machines  and  a 
dynamo  properly  placed  to  be  driven  by  belt  from  the 
tractor.  And  there  should  be  a  forge,  drill  press  and 
vise  bench,  and  possibly  a  separate  bench  for  cutting 
and  threading  gas  pipe. 

A  building  twenty  by  thirty  feet  could  be  used  to 
advantage.  There  should  be  two  large  doors  and  a 


Figure  36. — Design  of  Roof  Truss  Intended  to  Span  a  Farm 
Garage 

small  door,  and  plenty  of  windows  for  light  so  that 
repair  work  may  be  done  in  any  part  of  the  room. 

There  is  light  on  all  sides  of  a  farm  building.  Win- 
dows are  not  much  more  expensive  than  the  same  sur- 
face of  solid  wall. 

Two  forms  of  roof  trusses  are  shown,  either  of  whicfi 
will  support  the  roof  over  a  span  of  twenty  feet.  Fig- 
ures 36  and  37.  From  three  to  five  trusses  are  needed 
to  properly  support  the  roof.  The  number  of  trusses 
and  the  size  of  timbers  both  are  specified  after  the 
size  of  the  garage  and  the  width  of  span  is  decided 


74 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


upon.  On  general  principles,  six  by  six  is  heavy 
enough  for  the  main  timber  and  the  upper  timbers 
may  be  lighter. 

It  is  intended  that  the  tractor  shall  have  a  per- 
manent place  near  the  right-hand  wall  where  it  will 


Figure  37. — Another  Style  of  Roof  Truss  Built  Strong  Enough  to 
Support  the  Roof  of  a  Farm  Garage  Without  Center  Posts 

belt  directly  to  the  dynamo.  There  will  be  a  concrete 
wheel  block  to  stop  the  tractor  the  proper  belting  dis- 
tance from  the  dynamo.  The  truck  belongs  at  the  left 
where  it  may  remain  until  wanted. 

This  arrangement  leaves  the  center  of  the  garage 
for  the  automobile  which  is  likely  to  be  brought  in  at 
the  front  door  and  taken  out  through  the  side  door 
several  times  a  day. 

The  back  end  of  the  room  is  the  machine  shop,  but 
it  is  not  shut  off  by  a  partition.  A  farm  garage  dif- 
fers from  the  machinery  shed  because  the  garage  is 
active  while  the  shed  is  intended  for  storage.  The 
garage  is  all  in  use  and  it  should  be  well  lighted,  ven- 
tilated, heated  in  winter  and  made  comfortable  to 
work  in  the  year  round. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


75 


A  tarpaulin  may  be  dropped  from  one  of  the  ceil- 
ing truss  beams  at  the  shop  end  when  the  weather  is 
extremely  cold,  but  a  permanent  partition  is  too  much 
in  the  way. 

There  should  be  a  good  wash  floor  with  a  slight 
depression  and  a  good  drain  trap.  Car  washing  facil- 
ities may  be  provided  either  inside  or  outside  of  the 
garage. 

SMALL   FARM   GAEAGE 

A  small  garage  fourteen  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet 
deep  is  shown  as  a  separate  building  in  Figures  38  and 
39.  Some  farmers  object  to  using  gasoline,  or  storing 
it,  near  the  main  buildings.  In  all  cases  it  is  better  to 


Figure  38. — Farm  Garage  Built  of  Wood  with  Concrete  Wall 
and  Floor 

keep  the  supply  of  gasoline  underground  for  safety 
first,  also  to  prevent  evaporation.  This  little  building 
has  a  solid  concrete  foundation  and  floor  with  a  drain 
in  the  center  to  carry  off  the  wash  water.  There  are 


76 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


two  small  work  benches  in  the  corners  of  the  room  for 
light  tinker  work,  but  the  main  repairs  are  supposed 
to  be  done  in  the  farm  blacksmith  shop.  A  small 
dormer  in  the  roof  helps  with  ventilation  which  is 


Figure  39. — Floor  Plan  of  Farm  Garage  14  Feet  in  Width  by  20 
Feet  in  Length 

quite  important  in  winter  when  the  doors  and  windows 
are  shut.  Many  deaths  have  been  caused  by  running 
an  automobile  engine  in  a  tightly  closed  garage.  Com- 
bustion uses  all  of  the  oxygen  out  of  the  air  and  the 
attendant  dies  from  suffocation. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  TWO-STORY   CORN   CRIB 

In  combination  with  the  farm  granary,  the  new 
building  makes  a  safe  storage  for  both  corn  and  small 
grains.  When  properly  constructed  it  is  easily  made 
rat-proof.  Because  such  a  building  usually  is  isolated 
from  other  buildings,  and,  as  there  is  no  accumulation 


FARM  BUILDINGS  77 

of  straw  or  other  inflammable  material  about,  it  is 
considered  comparatively  safe  from  fire. 

Two-story  corn  cribs  and  grain  houses  utilize  space 
to  advantage  because  one  foundation  and  one  roof 


Figure  40. — Perspective  View  of  Two-Story  Corn  Crib.  The 
Side  of  the  Building:  is  Cut  Away  to  Show  the  Elevating 
Machinery 

does  double-  duty,  The  height  and  size  of  a  grain 
house  is  governed  only  by  the  requirements  of  the 
farm,  but  the  deeper  the  grain  bins  the  more  material 
is  required  to  make  them  sufficiently  strong.  Com- 
mercial grain  elevators  sometimes  are  carried  up  a 
hundred  feet,  but  the  construction  is  expensive.  A 
well  built  two-story  farm  corn  crib  and  grain  house  is 
an  ornament  and  a  valuable  asset.  See  Figures  40 
and  41. 


78 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


Cleaning  a/nd  Grading  Grain. — A  two-story  corn 
crib  and  granary  has  a  central  driveway  which  is 
closed  at  both  ends  by  doors  and  is  used  in  fall  and 
winter  to  clean  and  grade  grain  before  selling  or 
seeding.  There  are  down  spouts  and  elevating  buckets 
to  do  the  shoveling  and  lifting  and  carrying. 


r         *-  *-ue-c**~»,r<re~,t*«+*~~  J 


41. — ^Floor  Plans  of  Two-Story  Corn  Crib.  The  First 
Floor  Shows  the  Driveway  with  Corn  Cribs  at  the  Sides  and  the 
Second  Floor  Plan  Shows  the  Grain  Bins  Over  the  Center  Drive- 
way, with  Location  of  the  Downspouts,  Stairway,  etc. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  79 

A  good  fanning  mill  separates  salable  or  plantable 
seeds  from  noxious  weed  seed  and  blows  out  all  of 
the  light,  shrunken  kernels.  The  great  advantage  of 
planting  pure  seeds  is  well  understood  by  progressive 
farmers.  The  splendid  work  of  Burbank  and  other 
scientists  has  shown  that  all  grains  may  be  improved 
by  planting  only  the  full  sized  perfect  specimens. 

A  two-story  grain  house  stores  all  of  the  small 
grains  on  the  second  floor,  where  they  may  be  spouted 
down  by  gravity  to  the  fanning  mill.  The  fanning 
mill  is  run  by  power  from  a  gasoline  or  kerosene 
engine  so  that  a  steady  motion  is  maintained  at  the 
right  speed.  Men  who  turn  the  crank  of  a  fanning 
mill  hour  after  hour  to  clean  grain  are  anxious  to 
see  the  hopper  emptied  as  quickly  as  possible.  The 
result  is  that  the  work  often  is  hurried  and  inferior 
seed  is  planted,  but  with  a  gasoline  or  kerosene  engine 
doing  the  work,  there  is  no  temptation  to  hurry  the 
grain  through  too  fast  because  no  one  is  being  over- 
worked. 

The  customary  price  for  husking  and  shoveling  ear 
corn  into  the  crib  is  four  cents  per  bushel.  Where 
machinery  is  used  to  do  the  shoveling,  three  cents  is 
considered  sufficient  to  make  wages. 

Shelling  and  Storing  Corn. — Corn  may  be  shelled 
and  stored  in  bins  overhead  the  same  as  other  grains. 
There  always  is  danger  of  heating,  but  with  elevating 
machinery  it  may  be  handled  so  easily  and  transferred 
from  one  bin  to  another  that  the  heating  loses  its 
old-time  significance. 

The  corn  sheller  is  placed  in  the  center  driveway 
and  the  shelled  corn  is  elevated  at  once  into  one  of 
the  upper  bins.  The  cobs  are  carried  by  the  sheller 


80  FARM  BUILDINGS 

carriers  into  wagon  boxes  or  hog  racks  to  be  hauled 
over  to  the  wood  shed  to  use  for  summer  fuel  and 
winter  kindling  when  the  cook  wants  a  quick  hot  fire. 

By  way  of  precaution  the  shelled  corn  is  spouted 
down  in  a  few  days'  time  and  is  again  carried  up  by 
the  elevator.  If  there  is  any  danger  of  heating  the 
trouble  is  discovered  before  the  corn  is  damaged. 
Farmers  who  have  tried  to  air  hot  corn  by  shoveling 
know  exactly  how  to  appreciate  the  luxury  of  doing 
it  by  engine  power. 

Grinding  Feed. — With  different  kinds  of  grains 
stored  in  the  bins  overhead  it  is  easy  to  bring  a  mix- 
ture to  the  feed  grinder.  It  comes  through  the  dif- 
ferent spouts  in  small  steady  streams  to  feed  the 
grinder  to  its  full  capacity  without  choking.  Corn 
and  cob  may  be  brought  from  the  cribs  and  dumped 
with  other  grains  to  be  mixed  and  ground  and  carried 
up  to  the  feed  bin  to  be  fed  out  as  needed. 

Such  mixtures  are  sometimes  necessary  when  care- 
less help  is  employed.  They  can  be  trusted  to  use  so 
many  measures  of  certain  mixtures,  but  could  not  be 
relied  upon  to  make  the  mixtures  themselves. 

Foundation  and  Floor  of  a,  Two-Story  Granary. — 
The  foundation  walls  should  be  either  stone  or  con- 
crete. Because  of  the  weight  of  the  grain  bins,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  four  walls  running  lengthwise  of 
the  building.  The  outside  or  corn  crib  walls  are 
lighter  than  the  grain  part  of  the  building,  but  they 
go  deeper  into  the  ground  to  ensure  against  heaving 
by  frost  in  winter.  The  inside  walls  are  somewhat 
protected. 

The  two  center  foundation  walls  should  be  twelve 
inches  in  thickness  and  have  substantial  footings  to  sus- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  81 

tain  the  weight  of  the  grain  bins.  No  definite  rule  can 
be  given  for  the  depth  of  such  walls.  Frost  penetrates 
deeper  in  some  soils  and  localities  than  others  where 
the  winter  temperature  may  be  about  the  same.  Local 
custom  usually  establishes  the  depth  of  excavation  for 
foundation  walls. 

There  should  be  light  concrete  floors  in  the  corn 
cribs  and  a  heavy  concrete  floor  in  the  driveway 
through  the  center  of  the  building  to  stand  the  wear 
of  horses  and  the  weight  of  heavy  loads  of  grain. 
The  floors  should  be  made  in  blocks,  like  sidewalks,  to 
permit  of  expansion  and  contraction  from  heat  and 
cold. 

There  should  be  a  pit  near  the  center  of  the  floor  in 
the  driveway  for  the  elevator  boot.  The  dimensions  of 
this  pit  will  conform  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
particular  kind  of  elevator  to  be  used.  The  manu- 
facturer of  the  elevator  will  give  the  necessary  figures. 

The  Superstructure. — The  central  part  of  a  two- 
story  grain  house  is  built  solid  and  strong.  Usually 
two  by  twelve  studding,  twenty-four  feet  long,  are 
spaced  twelve  inches  apart  on  centers,  each  side  of  the 
driveway.  This  studding  supports  the  grain  bins  and 
the  roof  purlines. 

The  joists  which  carry  the  grain  bins  are  two  by 
twelve  inch  selected  planks  placed  twelve  inches  on 
centers.  They  are  spiked  and  bolted  to  the  studding 
and  are  supported  by  two  by  ten  girders  gained  into 
the  uprights.  The  joists  are  further  supported  by 
plank  posts  in  the  nature  of  pilaster  reinforcements 
to  the  studding.  Both  the  joists  and  studding  are 
thoroughly  well  bridged. 

Grain  bins  are  made  strong  for  the  following  rea- 


82  FARM  BUILDINGS 

sons:  on  account  of  the  weight  of  grains,  as  a  cubic 
foot  of  wheat  or  rye  weighs  forty-nine  pounds;  corn, 
forty-four  pounds;  oats,  twenty-eight,  and  peas,  fifty 
pounds. 

The  grain  bins  are  ten  feet  wide  and  fourteen  feet 
deep.  When  filled  with  wheat  the  weight  on  the  floor 
of  the  bin  would  be  686  pounds  per  square  foot  of 
floor  surface. 

As  wheat  in  a  bin  is  liquid  in  character  the  pressure 
on  the  sides  of  the  bin  is  practically  the  same  as  the 
dead  weight  at  the  same  depth. 

The  floor  of  the  grain  bins  may  be  of  heavy  matched 
narrow  flooring  carefully  blind  nailed  to  the  joists, 
or,  a  rough  floor  may  be  laid  diagonally  and  strongly 
nailed  to  the  joists  and  a  lighter  floor  of  seven-eighths 
inch  narrow  matched  flooring  laid  over  it.  The  tongue 
and  grooved  flooring  should  be  laid  at  right  angles  to 
the  joists  and  thoroughly  blind-nailed  at  each  cross- 
section  with  extra  long  finishing  nails. 

After  the  floor  is  laid  the  sides  of  the  grain  bins 
and  the  partitions  between  are  built  up.  As  the  heavy 
studding  reaches  to  the  roof  the  sides  of  the  bins  may 
be  of  matched  stuff  nailed  to  the  studding.  But  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  the  cross  partitions  between 
the  bins. 

Cleats  will  not  hold  cross  partitions  in  grain  bins 
fourteen  feet  deep,  the  pressure  is  too  great.  But  the 
ends  of  some  of  the  planks  may  pass  through  the  sides. 
These  planks  are  bolted  to  the  heavy  studding  which 
acts  as  cross  ties  to  hold  the  sides  from  spreading. 

In  some  of  these  two-story  grain  houses  the  bins  are 
built  up  in  grain  warehouse  fashion.  They  are  sup- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  83 

ported  in  the  same  way  over  the  center  driveway,  but 
are  practically  separate  from  the  timbers  of  the 
building. 

The  best  way  to  make  the  sides  of  the  grain  bins, 
and  the  partitions  between,  is  to  use  two  by  fours  laid 
flatways  with  locked  corners.  Each  two  by  four  is  well 
spiked  before  the  next  one  is  laid.  At  each  corner 
every  alternate  two  by  four  laps  past  and  is  spiked  into 
the  abutting  partition  with  slim  wire  nails  four  and 
one-half  inches  long.  This  makes  dovetailed  corners, 
which  is  the  strongest  practical  way  of  joining  two 
wooden  partitions  at  right  angles. 

It  may  not  be  necessary  to  carry  this  extra  strong 
construction  clear  up  to  the  tops  of  the  bins  because 
the  outward  pressure  is  much  less  towards  the  top. 
Two  by  fours  turned  on  edge  make  strong  partitions 
when  the  corners  are  locked.  Boards  seven-eighths 
inch  thick  may  be  used  near  the  top,  if  they  are  well 
fastened  in  place,  but  a  farmer  feels  much  more  com- 
fortable when  the  bins  are  made  solid  beyond  the  pos- 
sibility of  collapse. 

Ventilation. — Eight  feet  in  diameter  is  about  the 
limit  for  ear  corn  in  the  crib.  The  atmosphere  is 
much  dryer  some  seasons  than  others,  but  we  should 
provide  against  the  soft  corn  years. 

Allowing  eight  feet  for  each  corn  crib  and  ten  feet 
for  the  center  driveway,  we  have  a  building  twenty- 
six  feet  in  width.  When  the  end  doors  are  left  open 
there  is  circulation  of  air  on  both  sides  of  each  crib. 

Ventilation  is  improved  by  using  corn  wire  inside 
of  the  studding  to  keep  the  ears  from  lying  lengthwise 
in  the  openings  between  the  wooden  slats.  The  wooden 


84  FARM  BUILDINGS 

slats  protect  the  corn  from  driving  storms,  and  they 
help  out  in  looks,  but  the  corn  keeps  better  when  the 
cribs  are  lined  with  wire. 

The  cupola  also  is  a  ventilator  which  is  continually 
letting  out  damp  air  as  it  follows  up  the  slant  of  the 
roof  from  the  corn  cribs. 

The  Roof. — A  steep  pitch  gable  end  roof  is  best  for 
a  two-story  grain  house  and  corn  crib.  The  rafters 
and  cross  ties  which  reach  across  the  building  from 
one  plate  to  the  other  form  triangles.  Rafters  put 
up  in  this  way  brace  each  other  and  brace  every  part 
of  the  building. 

The  steep  pitch  is  necessary  to  get  sufficient  eleva- 
tion for  the  grain  hopper  so  the  shutes  will  carry  to 
the  farthest  bins. 

Each  rafter  makes  one  side  of  two  triangles,  which 
reach  from  the  peak  to  the  plates  and  are  tied  back 
to  the  long  studding  which  supports  the  grain  bins. 
These  uprights  are  tied  together  by  the  heavy  floor 
joists  of  the  grain  bins,  and  the  cross  ties  in  the  bins, 
so  that  the  upper  part  of  the  building  is  a  continuation 
of  trusses,  reaching  from  one  plate  to  the  other  by 
way  of  the  peak. 

FARM   IMPLEMENT   SHED 

Diversified  farming  of  the  modern  type  calls  for  a 
great  many  special  farm  implements  and  machines  to 
save  hand  labor.  The  growing  of  five  acres  of  pota- 
toes, for  instance,  requires  a  potato  cutter,  planter, 
sprayer,  digger  and  sorter.  Plows,  harrows,  culti- 
vators, etc.,  also  are  necessary,  but  they  are  not  classed 
as  special  crop  tools. 

A  complete  list  of  implements,  tools  and  machinery 


FARM  BUILDINGS  85 

used  on  farms  has  never  been  compiled,  but  any  well- 
managed  farm  has  enough  to  pay  for  a  special  building 
to  protect  them  from  the  weather  when  not  in  use. 
Upkeep,  depreciation  and  overhead  charges  are  new 


Figure  42. — Perspective  View  of  Farm  Implement  Shed  and 
Workshop 

terms  in  farm  bookkeeping,  but  they  are  here  to  be 
juggled  with. 

The  implement  shed  shown  in  Figure  42  is  forty- 
eight  feet  wide  by  sixteen  feet  in  depth.  It  is  built 
in  twelve-foot  sections  or  bents  with  a  foundation  wall 
across  each  end  and  along  the  back.  The  front  is 
mostly  double  doors  hinged  to  the  posts  in  such  a  way 
as  to  shut  together  in  pairs  so  they  open  the  full  width. 

The  building  is  twelve  feet  high  to  the  plates  to  give 
plenty  of  head  room  for  the  highest  farm  implement. 
Door  openings  are  all  about  fifteen  feet  in  width  in  the 
clear,  which  is  sufficient  to  enter  a  spring  tooth  horse 
rake  or  a  binder  in  field  condition. 

One  section  may  be  extended  back  if  necessary  to 
hold  one  of  the  new  jumbo  truck  wagons,  but  this 
implement  shed  is  intended  for  moderate  ambitions 
in  regard  to  power  farming. 


86  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Such  a  building  is  not  easily  braced  in  front  so  it 
is  better  to  set  the  front  posts  in  concrete.  It  is  easily 
done  by  digging  holes  about  two  feet  square  and 
three  feet  deep. 


Figure  43. — Floor  Plan  of  Farm  Implement  Shed,  Showing 
the  Workshop  in  One  End  of  the  Building-,  Handy  to  the  Imple- 
ment Storage  Room. 

The  foot  of  the  post  is  set  on  a  small  stone  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hole,  to  keep  it  off  the  ground.  It  is 
carefully  lined  and  plumbed  and  stay  lathed,  then 
filled  around  with  a  thin  mixture  of  concrete  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  the  shed  is  to  be  floored 
with  concrete,  these  front  posts  are  set  in  a  wall  trench 
instead  of  post  holes. 

The  floor  plan,  Figure  43,  shows  a  work  shop  in 
one  end  which  should  be  supplied  with  a  blacksmith 
kit  and  a  good  many  carpenter  tools.  A  wide  window 
is  shown  in  the  end  of  the  building  which  is  intended 
to  light  the  iron  work  bench. 

No  one  has  yet  found  a  place  for  the  wood-working 
bench.  The  shavings  are  sadly  in  the  way  in  the 
blacksmith  shop  and  there  is  no  other  place  where 
the  farm  carpenter  is  welcome. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  87 

SMALL    SEPARATE    DAIRY    HOUSE 

A  dairy  house  separate  from  the  stable  is  shown  in 
Figures  44,  45  and  46.  It  is  only  twelve  by  fourteen 
feet  in  size,  but  it  is  big  enough  to  handle  the  milk  of 
a  large  dairy  when  the  cream  is  sold  and  the  milk  is 
fed  warm  to  calves  and  small  pigs  as  it  should  be. 


Figure  44. — Separate  Farm  Dairy  House 

One  of  the  principal  reasons  for  having  a  dairy 
house  is  to  provide  facilities  for  disposing  of  the  skim 
milk  at  a  profit. 

"When  fresh  milk,  warm  from  the  cows,  is  passed 
through  the  separator  and  the  skim  milk  fed  quickly 
to  pure  bred  young  stock  in  clean  metallic  pails  or 
troughs  that  have  been  properly  sterilized,  it  often 
brings  more  money  than  the  cream. 

Separator  milk  fed  cold  in  bacteria-lined  troughs 
to  scrub  animals  is  quite  another  proposition. 

The  construction  of  this  little  house  commences  with 
a  good  concrete  foundation  wall  and  floor.  The  wall 
reaches  down  below  frost  and  the  floor  is  carefully 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


surfaced  with  rich  cement  mortar  troweled  on  to  make 
it  waterproof  and  smooth  for  easy  cleaning. 

A  two  by  four  sill  is  set  in  soft  concrete  mortar  on 
top  of  the  foundation  wall  and  two  by  four  studding 
are  toe  nailed  into  the  sill  in  the  usual  way. 


ie-0" 


_  45. — Floor  Plan  of  Separate  Farm  Dairy  House,  Show- 
low  the  Engine,   Pump,   Churn  and   Separator  are  Placed 

Outside  is  a  covering  of  building  paper  and  drop 
siding  finished  at  the  plate  and  eaves  with  a  box 
cornice  having  a  level  plancier. 

A  hip  roof  built  of  matched  sheathing  and  roll 
roofing  with  the  proper  eave  gutters  together  with  the 
box  cornice  gives  the  little  dairy  house  a  neat,  attract- 
ive appearance  when  it  is  nicely  painted.  Always 


FARM  BUILDINGS  89 

a  couple  of  coats  of  good  paint  are  necessary  to  dress 
a  frame  or  wooden  building  ready  for  inspection. 

Inside,  this  little  dairy  house  is  a  model  of  per- 
fection. 

The  wall  and  ceiling  are  made  smooth  with  matched, 
tongued  and  grooved  ceiling  over  building  paper. 


•PMMED  ROOFING 


M4D.  FLOOJHHGj 
2x4'STUDDlNG 


Figure  46. — Detail  Showing  Cornice  Construction  of  the  Small 
Dairy  House 

There  is  no  beading  and  the  joints  are  carefully  filled 
with  putty  and  painted  with  three  coats  of  white  lead 
and  oil  with  a  dash  of  Prussian  blue  to  make  it  look 
white.  An  inside  finish  made  in  this  way  may  be 
washed  to  keep  it  in  sanitary  condition. 

The  only  insulation  is  the  hollow  wall  with  building 
paper  outside  and  inside  and  a  filling  of  mineral  wool 
over  the  ceiling  between  the  ceiling  joists. 

There  is  a  cement-lined  concrete  water  tank  to  cool 


00  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  cream  cans.  This  tank  is  fitted  with  a  hollow 
overflow  plug  that  drains  away  the  running  water  as 
fast  as  it  reaches  the  proper  level. 

All  machinery  and  other  stationary  appurtenances 
are  indicated  on  the  floor  plan. 


Figure  47. — Perspective  View  of  Another  Small  Dairy  and  Pump 
House,  10  Feet  by  14  Feet  in  Size 

All  milk  utensils  are  washed  with  cold  water  at  the 
sink,  which  has  a  properly  trapped  waste  pipe  that  is 
connected  with  the  drain. 

There  is  no  provision  inside  the  dairy  house  for 
scalding  the  cans  or  other  utensils  because  the  one 
room  dairy  cannot  be  kept  warm  and  cold  at  the  same 
time. 

A  rack  is  provided  outside  against  the  south  side  of 
the  dairy  house  to  drain  the  cans  and  expose  them  to 
the  sun.  Under  and  in  front  of  this  rack  is  a  concrete 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


91 


floor  where  the  tins  are  scalded  with  boiling  water 
brought  by  the  farm  cart. 

Milk  tins  should  always  be  washed  first  with  cold 
water  or  water  that  has  been  slightly  warmed,  as  hot 
water  will  cook  the  drainage  milk  and  stick  it  fast  to 


Figure  48. — Floor  Plan  of  Pump  House,  Showing  the  Placing  of 
the  Churn,  Pump,  Separator,  Lineshaft,  Drain,  etc. 

the  tins,  thus  sealing  over  the  bacteria,  to  be  soaked 
loose  with  the  next  warm  filling  of  milk. 

PUMP  HOUSE 

A  small  farm  pump  house  and  dairy  house  ten  by 
fourteen  feet,  is  shown  in  Figures  47  and  48.  It  has  a 
concrete  floor  with  an  open  drain  running  through  the 
center  of  the  floor  leading  out  at  the  back  end  of  the 
building.  A  power  line  shaft  runs  lengthwise  of  the 
building  supported  by  hangers  from  the  ceiling.  Belts 
from  the  drive  pulleys  on  the  line  shaft  run  the  pump, 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


separator  and  churn.  The  most  important  machinery 
is  arranged  in  front  of  the  windows;  also  the  sink  is 
placed  in  a  very  light  corner.  The  building  itself  is 
of  wood  on  a  concrete  foundation.  It  is  covered  with 
a  hip  roof  over  an  insulated  ceiling  to  keep  the  dairy 


Figure  49. — Perspective  View  of  Small  Dairy  House  for  Making 
Butter 

house  cool.  An  important  feature  of  the  building  is 
a  wide  sliding  entrance  door  with  a  sloping  concrete 
approach  which  is  intended  for  the  easy  entrance  of 
a  farm  cart  containing  the  milk  cans.  The  farm  cart 
also  takes  the  skim  milk  from  the  separator  imme- 
diately out  for  feeding  warm  to  young  pigs,  calves,  etc. 

BUTTER  DAIRY 

A  dairy  house  on  a  farm  where  butter  is  made  is 
shown  in  Figures  49  and  50.  It  is  twelve  by  fourteen 
feet  in  size.  The  utensils  are :  A,  Ice  Box.  B,  Butter 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


93 


Worker.    C,  Stove.    D,  Sink.    E,  Can  Rack.    F,  Cream 
Separator.    G,  Cooler.    H,  Cream  Vat.     7,  Churn. 

CONCRETE    DAIRY    HOUSE   WITH    WATER-TANK    OVERHEAD 

This  milk  house  is  built  of  solid  concrete  with  walls 
twelve  inches  thick.    The  building  is  eight  feet  wide 


Figure  50. — Floor  Plan  of  Butter  Dairy 

by  twelve  feet  in  depth,  outside  dimensions,  and  it  is 
twelve  feet  high.  There  is  a  reinforced  concrete  tank 
floor  seven  feet  up,  leaving  about  four  feet  above  the 
floor  for  the  water  tank.  See  Figures  51  and  52.  The 
floor  of  the  water  tank  and  the  roof  of  the  building, 
which  also  is  the  roof  of  the  tank,  are  built  of  rein- 
forced concrete.  All  inside  surfaces  are  finished 
smooth  and  waterproofed.  The  water  tank  is  made 


94  FARM  BUILDINGS 

water  tight  by  cement  mortar  made  rich  and  put  on 
with  a  trowel.  The  milk  room  floor  also  is  concrete 
with  water  proof  surface  made  in  the  same  way,  but 
the  sides  and  ceiling  of  the  milk  room  are  painted  with 
cement  water  proofing  paint.  The  idea  of  building 


Figure  51. — Perspective  View  of  a  Reinforced  Concrete  Dairy 
House  with  Water  Tank  in  the  Top 

the  dairy  house  in  this  way  is  to  keep  it  as  cool  as 
possible  without  the  use  of  ice,  also  to  supply  tap 
water  under  pressure.  A  gasoline  engine  furnishes 
power  to  fill  the  tank  and  to  run  the  separator.  It 
makes  a  solid,  satisfactory  milk  house  for  a  small 
dairy  when  cream  is  sold  and  milk  is  fed  on  the  farm 
to  young  stock. 

STABLE  MILK  RECORD  SHEET 

The  illustration,  Figure  53,  shows  a  frame  with  two 
panes  of  glass  fitted  into  grooves.  The  frame  is  made 
slate-frame  fashion  except  that  there  are  two  grooves 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


95 


8L0" 


Figure  52. — Floor  Plan  of  Concrete  Dairy  Tank  House,  8  Feet 

instead  of  one.  The  record  card  slides  in  between 
the  two  lights  of  glass  so  that  it  may  be  read  without 
being  removed.  The  frame  may  be  hung  with  chains 
or  wires  suspended  from  the  ceiling. 


Figure  53. — Frame  for  Holding  Record  Sheets  in  a  Dairy  Stable 


96  FARM  BUILDINGS 

CALF  FEEDER 

The  drawing,  Figure  54,  shows  a  simple  contrivance 
to  hold  calves  steady  while  getting  their  milk  rations. 
Every  dairyman  recognizes  the  importance  of  prevent- 
ing calves  from  reaching  each  others '  ears,  after  giving 


Figure  54. — Stanchions  for  Holding  Calves  at  Feeding  Time 


them  their  supply  of  milk.  If  they  are  confined  in 
stanchions  far  enough  apart,  until  their  mouths  become 
dry  or  they  lose  the  taste  of  milk,  they  will  eat  clover 
heads  and  meal  instead  of  sucking  each  others'  ears. 
In  front  of  the  stanchions  is  a  wooden  rack  divided 
into  squares  like  a  ladder.  These  squares  are  just 
the  right  size  to  hold  the  pail  from  upsetting  and  they 
are  spaced  so  the  openings  come  opposite  the  calves. 
Calves  should  be  fed  in  sterilized  pails.  It  is  impos- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  97 

sible  to  clean  a  trough  properly,  and  it  soon  becomes 
foul  and  dangerous.  A  growing  calf  is  an  energetic 
little  animal,  and  he  will  upset  a  pail  unless  it  is 
firmly  held.  The  rack  is  independent  of  the  floor 
so  it  may  be  removed  and  the  floor  scrubbed.  The 
rack  itself  is  a  convenience  for  holding  dry  feed  so 
the  calves  can  get  it  without  pushing  it  too  far  away. 
The  stanchions  are  two  feet  apart  and  the  openings 
in  the  ladder  rack,  which  come  opposite  the  stanchions, 
are  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  pails  used  for  feeding.  The  openings 
between  may  be  of  any  size  to  bring  the  feeding  pails 
in  front  of  the  stanchions,  as  these  between  openings 
are  intended  for  spaces  to  Keep  the  feeding  pails  far 
enough  apart. 

FARM  ICE  HOUSE 

The  ice  house  shown  in  Figure  55  is  fourteen  feet 
square  on  the  ground  and  sixteen  feet  high  to  the 
plates.  The  foundation  is  of  concrete  made  into  one 
solid  wall  extending  all  the  way  around.  Above  the 
wall  the  house  is  built  of  wood,  using  studding, 
matched  boards  and  drop  siding.  Next  to  the  stud- 
ding, both  outside  and  inside,  is  one  thickness  of 
building  paper,  then  matched  ceiling  boards  are  blind 
nailed  on  the  inside  and  drop  siding  is  used  for  the 
'outside  boarding,  leaving  a  four-inch  dead  air  space 
between.  It  is  a  mistake  to  pack  this  space  with 
sawdust,  because  the  sawdust  holds  dampness  and  rots 
down  at  the  bottom  and  settles  in  spots. 

To  preserve  stored  ice  from  melting,  the  first  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  drainage.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  water  should  get  away  from  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


bottom.    If  ice  rests  in  water  it  melts  away  rapidly. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  first  tile  drain  the  ground. 

The  space  between  the  concrete  foundation  walls 
under  the  ice  is  filled  with  cinders  pounded  down. 


Figure  55. — Farm  Ice  House  with  Continuous  Doors  Reaching 
from  Bottom  to  Top 

Above  the  cinders  is  a  slanting  floor  of  concrete,  then 
a  layer  of  sawdust  a  foot  deep.  This  makes  the  very 
best  foundation  for  ice  in  a  farm  ice  house.  There 
are  other  methods  of  keeping  ice  in  large  commercial 
storage  plants,  but  what  interests  farmers  is  a  cheap, 
practical  way  of  preserving  ice  for  home  use. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  99 

There  also  is  a  drainage  system  inside  of  the  ice 
house  consisting  of  grooves  in  the  slanting  concrete 
floor  under  the  ice.  These  grooves  or  gutters  empty 
into  a  cross  gutter  or  drain  which  leads  the  drip  water 
into  the  tile  drain. 

The  ice  house  doors  reach  from  the  sill  almost  to 
the  peak,  making  one  continuous  opening,  so  that  the 
ice  can  be  put  in  or  taken  out  at  any  level  as  the  house 
is  being  filled  or  emptied. 

A  handy  way  to  lift  the  cakes  of  ice  is  with  a  hay 
fork  toggle  and  a  pair  of  heavy  ice  tongs.  A  single 
rope  is  attached  to  the  tongs  and  passed  over  the 
hoisting  pulley  in  the  track  carriage  at  the  top  and 
run  through  a  single  shieve  at  the  bottom,  so  that  a 
horse  can  quickly  lift  a  cake  of  ice  to  any  height 
necessary. 

The  cakes  of  ice  are  built  into  a  solid  mass  in  the 
center  of  the  house  usually  by  breaking  joints  the 
same  as  in  brick  work,  leaving  a  space  of  twelve  inches 
all  around  the  outside.  It  is  much  better  to  do  the  fill- 
ing and  packing  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  to  sprinkle 
the  ice  with  a  hose  or  throw  pails  of  water  over  each 
layer  to  freeze  the  cakes  of  ice  together  into  a  solid 
body  as  near  as  possible.  Sawdust  enough  is  needed 
to  pack  all  around  the  ice  and  for  a  layer  eighteen 
inches  or  two  feet  deep  over  the  top. 

Where  sawdust  cannot  be  obtained,  clean  straw  or 
hay  that  has  been  run  through  the  cutting  box  will 
answer  the  purpose,  and  if  carefully  handled  will  keep 
the  ice  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner.  However,  saw- 
dust is  much  to  be  preferred,  and  when  figuring  the 
cost  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  same  sawdust  may 
be  used  for  several  years  by  taking  good  care  of  it  to 


100  FARM  BUILDINGS 

keep  it  clean  and  to  dry  it  out  in  summer.  Sawdust 
from  pitch  pine  logs  is  the  best. 

The  principle  of  keeping  ice  on  a  farm  is  a  little 
different  from  the  commercial  proposition  where  ice 
is  stored  in  winter  to  sell  out  in  summer.  The  farmer 
usually  fills  his  own  ice  house.  He  does  the  work  in 
the  winter  time  when  help  and  horses  would  other- 
wise be  practically  idle.  A  little  extra  ice  under  the 
circumstances  costs  the  farmer  nothing,  so  that  he 
does  not  figure  it  as  a  real  loss  if  the  meltage  is  con- 
siderable. On  the  other  hand,  if  it  keeps  extra  well 
and  he  has  a  surplus,  there  is  always  sale  for  it  in 
August  and  September. 

It  is  better  to  clear  the  sawdust  out,  before  the  cold 
nights  of  November,  to  give  the  ice  house  a  chance 
to  dry  out  before  being  refilled.  When  considerable 
ice  is  left  over,  it  is  a  temptation  to  put  new  ice  on  top 
of  the  old,  but  this  is  a  mistake.  The  ice  house  should 
be  cleaned  out  clear  down  to  the  bottom  every  year. 
This  gives  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  drainage  and 
to  start  right  with  the  next  filling.  The  management 
of  an  ice  house  is  simple,  but  there  are  a  few  little 
things  to  remember.  When  you  fill  an  ice  house  you 
want  to  do  it  in  such  a  way  that  most  of  the  ice  will 
stay  in  the  house  until  you  are  ready  to  take  it  out. 

Figure  56  shows  a  concrete  ice  house  which  is  built 
to  last.  It  is  sixteen  by  twenty-four  feet  in  size  on 
the  ground  and  twenty  feet  high.  A  solid  building 
like  this  is  a  great  asset  to  the  farm. 

MANURE   SHED 

The  name  "manure  pit"  suggests  a  foul-smelling 
hole  requiring  a  great  deal  of  disagreeable  hand  labor 


FARM  BUILDINGS  101 

in  filling  and  emptying  the  pit.  But  some  provision 
must  be  made  for  storing  stable  manure  when  the 
weather  is  too  stormy  to  haul  it  to  the  field.  Also 
the  liquids  must  be  saved  and  applied  to  the  land  in 
a  decent,  self-respecting  manner. 


Figure  56. — Concrete  Farm  Ice  House  with  Flat  Roof  Made  of 
Asphalt 

A  manure  shed  properly  constructed  is  a  unit  in 
the  general  system  of  handling  stable  manure.  It 
also  provides  convenient  storage  and  protection  for 
the  manure  spreader. 

Machinery  is  necessary  for  the  economic  handling 
of  manure.  Manure  contains  more  value  when  it  is 
fresh.  The  dairy  stable  and  horse  stable  manure 
should  be  carefully  spread  each  day  at  stable  cleaning 
time.  To  prevent  leaching  in  winter  there  should 
be  a  rooted  crop  such  as  rye,  wheat  or  winter  oats 
on  the  ground  to  catch  and  hold  the  liquids  and  fine 
particles  from  disappearing  in  the  wash  caused  by 
melting  snow  and  winter  rains. 

The  manure  from  a  well  fed  dairy  cow  is  worth 


102  FARM  BUILDINGS 

about  twenty-five  dollars  per  year.  To  save  and 
utilize  this  valuable  by-product  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  system  and  sufficient  discipline  to  carry  the  system 
into  effect. 

Manure  is  at  its  best  when  taken  fresh  from  the 
stable  and  spread  immediately  and  evenly  by  machin- 
ery upon  the  land.  The  beneficial  bacteria  in  fresh 
manure  are  lively  and  vigorous  and  ready  to  prepare 
plant  food  for  the  growing  crop. 

The  reason  why  hand  spreading  does  not  produce 
the  same  results  is  because  it  is  not  even.  Too  many 
bacteria  are  planted  in  one  spot,  while  other  patches 
of  ground  are  left  without  any.  Hand  spreading  is 
too  expensive.  Horsepower  is  cheaper  as  well  as 
better. 

The  best  practice  is  to  prepare  land  in  the  fall  and 
seed  it  to  rye.  Rye  is  equal  to  wheat  as  food  for  man 
or  beast.  Rye  is  the  coolest  growing  crop  we  have. 
It  will  grow  late  in  fall  and  start  again  early  in  spring. 
In  many  localities  there  are  days  during  the  winter 
when  rye  will  make  some  growth. 

Rye  holds  snow  and  rain  water  until  it  soaks  into 
the  ground  instead  of  running  in  streams  down  the 
inclines  to  carry  fertility  into  the  low  places.  Water 
stored  in  the  soil  in  winter  is  worth  a  rain  in  summer. 
It  is  better  because  such  moisture  contains  plant  food 
in  solution. 

Fall  plowing  destroys  different  kinds  of  destructive 
insects  such  as  chinch  bugs,  grasshoppers,  white  grubs, 
corn  root  worms,  timothy  bill  bugs  and  many  other 
pests  that  hibernate  in  the  ground  or  under  trash 
and  emerge  in  the  spring  to  work  mischief. 

Fall  plowing  helps  to  hold  moisture,  adds  humus 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


103 


and  bacteria  and  it  works  the  soil  into  better  physical 
condition. 

Eye,  under  this  system,  is  not  grown  for  crop  but 
to  turn  under  in  the  spring  together  with  the  manure 
collected  during  the  winter.  If  rye  is  sown  early  it 
will  make  some  winter  and  a  good  deal  of  spring 
pasture.  It  puts  the  ground  in  splendid  condition 
to  work  into  a  good  early  seed  bed  for  spring  crop. 

This  system  provides  conditions  under  which  stable 
manure  may  be  profitably  disposed  of  as  fast  as  it 
accumulates.  There  is  no  serious  objection  to  sinking 
the  spreader  wheels  deep  in  the  soft  ground  when  the 
rye  is  to  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  Four  horses  may 
be  necessary,  but  farm  horses  are  not  overworked  in 
winter. 


Figure  57. — Manure  Shed  with  Pit  for  Liquid  Manure 


104 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


One  great  advantage  is  the  possibility  of  keeping 
the  stables  and  yards  clean  so  there  are  no  breeding 
places  for  house  flies  and  other  harmful  disease- 
breeding  insects.  Stable  cleanliness  also  deprives 
harmful  bacteria  of  their  propagating  places. 

A  manure  shed  and  shelter  for  the  spreader  is  shown 
in  Figure  57.  The  building  is  sixteen  feet  wide  and 
twenty-four  feet  long,  made  of  concrete  and  covered 
with  a  light  framework  of  wood  with  a  corrugated 
iron  roof.  The  driveway  on  the  right  hand  side  is 
eight  feet  wide  and  has  a  solid  concrete  floor  with  a 
drain  gutter  as  shown.  This  gutter  is  an  extension 
of  the  stable  gutter  drain  which  conducts  the  liquid 
manure  into  the  manure  sink.  The  platform  to  the 
left  is  for  dumping  solid  stable  manure  on  stormy 
days.  There  is  a  switch  track  which  runs  the  carrier 
over  this  manure  platform  after  the  spreader  is 


Figure  58. 


-Farm  Scale  House  with  Concrete  Foundation   and 
Scale  Pit 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


105 


loaded.  A  pump  and  short  hose  is  used  to  lift  the  liquid 
manure  and  pour  it  over  the  loads  of  solid  manure 
so  the  spreader  disposes  of  both.  The  stable  and 
manure  shed  are  both  washed  down  with  the  hose  and 
this  wash  water  drains  into  the  liquid  manure  sink. 
The  spreader  is  driven  in  at  one  end  and  out  at  the 
other  to  save  turning  or  backing. 

SCALE   HOUSE 

The  scale  house  protects  the  farm  scale  from  the 
weather.  See  Figure  58.  It  is  fourteen  feet  wide  and 
sixteen  feet  long,  with  an  overhanging  roof  to  keep 
out  the  rain  and  snow.  The  little  house  is  open  both 
front  and  back  to  drive  through.  The  four  corner 


Figure  59. — Section  Through  Winter  Feeding  Shed  for  Cattle. 
There  Is  a  Feeder  Corn  Crib  with  Trough  at  the  Side,  2  Feet 
Above  the  Ground  Level 


106 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


posts  are  set  in  concrete  because  there  is  no  other  way 
of  bracing  them. 

CORN  CRIB  WITH  OPEN  FEEDER  TROUGH 

Figure  59  shows  a  corn  crib  with  open  feeder  trough 
at  the  side.  The  roof  is  extended  to  make  a  stock 
shed.  The  bottom  corn  slat  is  left  off  so  the  corn  may 
be  worked  out  with  a  handspike  or  crow  bar. 

THE  COST  OP  FARM  FENCING 

One  dollar  per  rod  is  the  easiest  unit  to  use  in  figur- 
ing the  cost  of  farm  fencing.  If  the  job  is  well  done 
the  fence  will  be  worth  a  dollar  a  rod. 


8 


40  Ac  res 


Figure  60. — Showing  the  Amount  of  Fencing  Required  to  Enclose 
Forty  Acres 

It  takes  320  rods  of  fencing  to  enclose  forty  acres 
in  one  square  field.  At  one  dollar  per  rod  the  fence 
would  cost  eight  dollars  per  acre. 

To  fence  two  forties  together  into  two  forty-acre 
square  fields  would  require  560  rods.  This  means 
seven  dollars,  or  one  dollar  less  per  acre,  because  the 
one  cross  fence  answers  for  both  fields. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


107 


When  three  forties  are  fenced  together,  800  rods  of 
fencing  is  required,  or  a  little  more  than  six  and  one- 
half  rods  per  acre,  or  six  and  one-half  dollars  per  acre. 


-QQ  Ftods 


SOftods 


Figure  61. — Diagram  Showing  Fencing  Required  to  Fence 
80  Acres 

When  four  forties  or  160  acres  are  fenced  into  forty- 
acre  square  fields,  960  rods  of  fence  will  do  the  job, 
which  is  only  six  rods  per  acre,  or  six  dollars  per  acre, 
according  to  the  dollar  a  rod  price.  On  160  acres  the 
division  fences  effect  a  saving  of  two  dollars  per  acre 
as  compared  with  fencing  one  forty-acre  field  alone. 
These  figures  mean  that  a  farmer  owning  160  acres 
must  have  $960  worth  of  fence  for  the  large  fields  and 


108 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


that  the  smaller  fields  and  yards  are  extra,  which 
may  be  estimated  at  $1,200,  including  paddocks,  yard 
entrance  gates,  etc.  Figuring  upkeep  and  depreciation 
at  twelve  per  cent  per  year,  we  have  an  annual  fencing 
cost  of  $144,  or  about  one  dollar  per  acre  for  the 
tillable  land. 


•60  Ttafe 


40  Acres 


fOAcrcs 


-80  Rcxfe- 


Figure  62. — Fencing  Necessary  for  120  Acres 
FIELD  GATE  FOR  OCCASIONAL   USE 

It  is  not  necessary  to  have  hinge  gates  in  all  fields. 
The  kind  shown  in  Figures  64  and  65  is  useful  and 
convenient  and  not  expensive.  The  saving  is  not  so 
much  in  the  gate  as  in  the  supporting  posts.  Ordinary 


FARM  BUILDINGS 
/GO  7?0</S 


109 


Acres 


Figure  63. — Amount  of  Fencing  Required  to  Fence  160  Acres  in 
4  Fields  of  40  Acres  Each 

fence  posts  are  heavy  enough,  but  they  should  be  well 
set  in  the  ground  and  the  three  posts  at  each  end  of 
the  gate  should  be  connected  by  fence  wire  and  by 


Figure  64. — "Farm  Gate  Intended  for  Grain  Fields  and  Pasture 
Fields  at  a  Distance  from  the  Farm  Buildings 

wooden  cross  pieces  bolted  through.     Nails  will  not 
hold  the  weight  of  the  gate  and  the  racking  caused 


110 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


by  sliding  the  gate  open  and  shut.  Farm  gates  should 
be  a  little  higher  than  the  fence  because  breachy  ani- 
mals try  the  gate  first. 


IT 


Figure  65. — Plan  Showing  Fence,  Fence  Posts  and  Field  Gate. 
The  Posts  Should  Be  So  Placed  as  to  Permit  the  Gate  to  Open 
At  Right  Angles  to  the  Fence 

STOCK   HURDLE 

The  stock  hurdle,  shown  in  Figure  66,  is  used  for 
driving  or  separating  hogs  or  sheep.  It  is  made  light 
and  strong  by  using  thin  boards  of  tough  hard  wood, 


Figure  66. — Stock  Hurdle  Used  for  Separating  Sheep  or  Hogs 

bolted  through  at  the  crossings  of  the  end  pieces  and 
also  at  the  crossings  of  the  eater-cornered  braces.  One- 
quarter  inch  carriage  bolts  are  used. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 
HARROW  SLED 


111 


This  sled  is  used  for  moving  harrows  from  the 
implement  shed  to  the  field  or  from  one  field  to 
another.  A  large  harrow  may  be  eighteen  feet  wide 
and  only  six  or  eight  feet  long,  which  makes  it  awk- 


Figure  67. — Harrow  Sled  Long  Enough  to  Hold  a  Four-Section 
Harrow 

ward  to  drag  through  gates  and  farm  lanes.  Lanes 
should  be  grassy  and  the  grass  should  be  protected. 
A  sled  like  this  is  useful  at  such  times. 


CHAPTER  X 

HOG  HOUSES  FOE  WINTEE  AND  STJMMEE 
WINTER   HOG   HOUSE 

A  hog  house  that  is  designed  especially  for  breeding 
stock  in  the  winter,  is  shown  in  Figure  68.  There 
are  two  sets  of  windows  so  placed  that  the  sun  shines 
on  the  hog  nests  in  the  middle  of  the  day  during  the 
farrowing  season  in  late  winter.  This  special  plan 
is  for  latitude  42  or  thereabouts.  Modifications  have 
been  worked  out  for  locations  farther  north.  The 
solid  concrete  floor  has  a  waterproof  upper  surface 
made  of  rich  cement  mortar  laid  on  with  a  trowel  and 
pressed  water  tight.  The  house  is  divided  into  pens 
six  by  nine  feet  in  size.  Each  pen  is  provided,  with  a 
movable  wooden  nest  floor  to  keep  the  hogs  up  from 
the  cold  concrete.  The  alleyway  through  the  center 
is  arranged  for  convenient  feeding  and  there  are  door- 
ways and  gates  to  facilitate  the  driving  of  hogs  in  any 
direction.  See  Figure  69. 

' '  This  is  our  fourth  year  in  the  pure  bred  hog  busi- 
ness," said  a  farmer  after  he  had  built  such  a  house. 
"We  have  not  yet  established  a  reputation  for  Mgh- 
priced  breeding  stock,  but  we  are  enjoying  the  confi- 
dence of  our  neighbors  and  have  made  a  few  good 
sales. 

"The  fact  came  home  to  us  the  first  winter  that 
112 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


113 


I    I 


114 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS  115 

pure  bred  hogs  require  pure  bred  care  in  feeding  and 
housing.  Scrubs  may  rustle  around  the  barnyard 
because  they  don 't  know  any  better,  but  quick  matur- 
ing hogs  that  have  been  educated  for  generations  to 
make  satisfactory  gains  in  winter  demand  all  of  the 
comforts  of  a  good  home. 

"Two  years  ago  we  built  this  winter  hog  house 
especially  for  the  breeding  stock.  It  is  twenty-four 
by  forty-two  feet  in  size  and  contains  fourteen  pens 
arranged  on  both  sides  of  a  center  alley.  Each  pen 
is  six  by  nine  feet,  a  size  we  have  found  to  be  just 
large  enough  to  hold  one  sow  and  her  litter  of  small 
pigs  and  leave  the  little  fellows  some  room  to  root 
among  the  sods  that  we  supply  for  their  entertainment 
and  exercise. 

1 '  The  building  has  a  concrete  foundation  and  floor. 
See  Figure  70.  The  outside  wall  was  footed  deep 
enough  to  reach  below  frost  and  it  extends  up  in  the 
rear  to  the  plate,  which  is  about  six  feet  above  the 
floor.  In  front  or  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  building, 
the  wall  is  low  enough  to  place  the  windows  down 
near  the  nests.  The  plan  was  made  to  let  the  sun 
shine  through  the  windows  into  the  hog  nests  for  the 
longest  possible  period  each  day  during  the  months 
of  March  and  April,  the  time  when  most  of  the  spring 
pigs  are  farrowed. 

"Ventilation  is  provided  for  by  a  system  of  levers 
which  operate  the  upper  windows  and  hold  them  in 
any  desired  position.  It  often  happens  that  the  days 
are  warm  enough  towards  spring  to  have  most  of  these 
windows  open.  When  the  house  is  well  occupied,  con- 
siderable ventilation  is  needed  even  in  cold  weather. 

"Towards  the  north  the  house  is  made  solid  and 


116 


BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS  117 

wind  proof.  There  are  no  doors  or  openings  of  any 
kind  to  create  a  draft  from  this  direction.  There  are 
plenty  of  inside  doors  and  outside  doors  opening  to 
the  south,  so  that  the  pigs  may  be  transferred  from 
one  pen  to  another  or  separated  or  turned  out  of 
doors  as  required. 

"The  floor  is  solid  concrete  surface  finished  with 
well  made  cement  mortar  to  make  it  waterproof.  The 
feeding  troughs  are  made  of  high  grade  cement  mor- 
tar cast  in  molds  so  the  troughs  are  separate  from 
the  floor,  but  are  so  heavy  that  they  are  not  easily 
upset  or  moved.  Each  pen  is  provided  with  a  wooden 
nesting  floor  to  keep  the  pigs  up  from  the  cold  cement. 
These  nesting  floors  are  made  as  light  as  possible  to 
be  easily  moved  about  when  the  pens  are  being  cleaned. 
During  mild  weather  the  pens  are  cleaned  frequently 
with  the  hose  and  we  are  very  particular  to  see  that 
each  pen  is  liberally  supplied  with  fresh  bedding 
every  day.  We  have  valuable  hogs  and  we  find  that 
it  pays  well  to  take  first  class  care  of  them." 

PORTABLE  HOG  HOUSE 

Hogs  on  pasture  need  a  house  for  protection  against 
the  hot  sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day  in  summer.  They 
also  need  a  shelter  against  cold  rain  storms  and  early 
snow  storms  in  the  fall.  Again  in  the  spring,  when 
the  wheat  or  rye  fields  need  pasturing,  a  nearby  shelter 
comes  in  handy. 

Figure  71  shows  a  portable  hog  house  that  is  easily 
and  quickly  made  of  light  materials.  It  should  be 
well  braced  inside  to  prevent  racking  while  being 
moved. 

Some  farmers  build  these  houses  with  floors  and 


)J8 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS  119 

others  bed  them  with  straw.  In  either  case  they 
should  be  banked  around  with  earth  to  prevent  the 
wind  from  blowing  under.  Ventilation  is  provided 
oy  leaving  the  door  open,  also  by  means  of  the  small 
ventilator  door  in  the  front  side  of  the  house  near  the 
roof.  Ground  that  is  high  and  dry  is  always  selected, 
either  in  the  pasture  or  nearby,  preferably  in  the 
farm  lane  near  the  pasture  fields. 


Figure  72. — A-Shaped  Portable  Hog  House  for  Use  in  the  Fields 
or  Distant  Feed  Lots 

These  portable  hog  houses  should  be  about  eight  by 
twelve  feet  in  size  with  a  low  partition  or  two  across 
the  middle  to  prevent  the  hogs  from  piling  up  to  keep 
warm  when  the  nights  are  cold. 

A  two  by  eight  reaching  across  from  one  sill  to  the 
other  makes  a  good  protection  for  the  smaller  shoats. 
The  top  edge  of  the  plank  should  be  about  a  foot 
above  the  ground. 


120 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


A-SHAPED  HOG  COT 


At  the  price,  there  is  nothing  better  than  the 
A-shaped  hog  cots.  They  are  handy  for  sows  at  far- 
rowing time  and  they  help  out  at  other  times.  See 
Figures  72,  73  and  74. 


Figure  73. — Showing  How  the  A-Shaped  Portable  Hog  House  Is 
Framed 

The  commonest  size  of  A-shaped  hog  cots  is  eight 
by  eight  feet  for  both  bottom  and  sides.  That  is, 
the  bottom  is  eight  feet  square  and  each  side  is  eight 
feet  square.  Sixteen-foot  boards  are  used  in  making 
them.  The  boards  are  cut  across  in  the  middle  so 
that  there  is  no  waste. 

The  mud  sills  usually  are  rounded  up  at  one  end 
sleigh  runner  fashion  for  easy  moving.  This  is  desir- 
able because  the  ground  in  front  of  a  hog  cot  soon 
geta  muddy. 

BUI  of  Lumber  for  the  A-Shaped  Hog  Cot.—Tlair- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


121 


teen  pieces,  one  inch  by  eight  inches,  sixteen  feet  long. 
Twelve  wooden  battons  sixteen  feet  long;  or  twenty- 
four  metal  battons  eight  feet  long  for  roof. 

Ten  boards  one  by  eight,  fourteen  feet  long,  for 
ends.    Also  seven  battons  fourteen  feet  long.    Seventy 


Figure  74. — Cross  Section  Through  A-Shaped  Portable  Hog  House 

feet  of  flooring  in  sixteen-foot  lengths.  Two  pieces 
for  ridgeboards  one  by  six  by  eight  feet.  Three  pieces 
two  by  eight  by  sixteen  feet  for  sills.  Four  pieces 
two  by  four  by  sixteen  feet  long.  Two  pieces  two  by 
four  by  ten  feet.  Three  pieces  two  by  six  inches,  eight 
feet  long,  for  mud  sills  or  runners.  One  sash  complete 
with  four  lights  of  ten  by  twelve  glass.  One  piece  one 
by  three  by  sixteen  feet  for  window  and  door  casings. 

AUTOMATIC  HOG  COT  DOOR  FOR  WINTER 

It  is  easy  to  make  an  automatic  hog  door  that  will 
fall  back  into  place  every  time  a  hog  passes  through. 


122 


FARM   BUILDINGS 


The  door  is  a  gunny  sack  nailed  over  the  opening. 
It  is  weighted  down  by  about  two  pounds  of  earth 
in  the  bottom  of  the  sack.  The  door  works  better  if  the 
opening  is  about  an  inch  wider  than  the  sack,  but 
some  fanners  prefer  to  have  the  sack  lap  past  the  sides 
of  the  doorway  an  inch  on  each  side. 

The  hogs  soon  learn  to  open  the  door  either  way. 
When  the  gunny  sack  is  wider  than  the  opening  one 
edge  of  the  sack  will  flop  inside  sometimes,  while  the 


-€'-0 

Figure  75. — Breeding  Crate  for  Hogs.     The  Illustration  Shows 
the  Manner  of  Construction 

outer  edge  remains  outside,  which  looks  untidy,  but  it 
lets  in  fresh  air  which  may  be  greatly  needed.  If  the 
doorway  is  wider  than  the  canvas  door,  then  the 
curtain  drops  straight  down  and  hangs  in  the  door- 
way, leaving  two  cracks  for  ventilation.  The  doorway 
fronts  the  south.  In  cold  weather  it  may  be  further 
protected  by  placing  the  hog  cot  near  a  building,  high 
board  fence,  or  some  other  wind  shield. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


123 


HOG  BREEDING  CRATE 

Pure  bred  boars  sometimes  grow  to  weigh  700 
pounds.  A  breeding  crate  is  necessary  when  young 
sows  are  mated  to  such  heavy  hogs. 

Figure  75  shows  a  good  way  to  make  a  breeding 
crate  to  use  for  such  purposes.  It  is  made  of  two  by 
four  scantling  put  together  with  bolts.  The  bolts  are 
pointed  out  and  the  ends  are  cut  off  even  with  the 
outside  of  the  nuts  and  are  filed  smooth.  The  crate  is 
thoroughly  well  cross  braced  to  prevent  racking  when 
it  is  loaded  or  unloaded  from  a  wagon. 

HOG  LOADING   SHUTE 

A  portable  hog  shute  is  a  great  convenience  on  a 
livestock  farm.  The  one  shown  in  Figure  76  is  six- 


Figure  76. — Loading  Shute  for  Hogs.     

Made  Portable  and  May  Be  Moved  Like  a  Whee 


This  Loading  Shute  Is 
Ibarrow 


teen  feet  long  and  the  same  width  as  the  wagon  box. 
If  inch  boards  are  used  for  the  bottom  of  the  shute 
it  will  be  necessary^  to  use  five  or  seven  cross  pieces 
under  the  floor.  Planks  are  heavy.  The  shute  is  used 
occasionally,  sometimes  for  light  hogs,  sometimes  for 
heavy  ones.  If  made  of  light  material  and  well  braced, 
a  shute  like  this  should  last  a  dozen  years  or  more. 


CHAPTER  XI 

POULTEY,  POULTBY  HOUSES  AND  POULTEY 
FUENITUEE 

Breeds  of  Domestic  Fowls. — There  are  about 
twenty-four  breeds  of  domestic  fowls,  known  as  fol- 
lows: Ancona,  Black  Spanish,  Black  Sumatra,  Blue 
Andalusian,  Brahma,  Buckeye,  Cochin,  Cornish, 
Dominique,  Dorking,  Game,  Hamburg,  Houdan,  Java, 
Langshan,  Leghorn,  Minorca,  Orpington,  Plymouth 
Rock,  Polish,  Red  Cap,  Red  Malay,  Rhode  Island  Red, 
Wyandotte. 

Most  of  these  breeds  are  subdivided  into  varieties ; 
for  instance,  there  are  three  varieties  of  dorkings, 
the  white,  the  silver  grey  and  the  colored.  There  are 
eight  varieties  of  leghorn,  two  varieties  of  Rhode  Island 
reds,  etc.  Bantams  are  dwarfs  selected  and  bred 
down  from  the  regular  breeds. 

Poultry  Breeding  Terms. — 

Fowl. — Hen  or  rooster  more  than  a  year  old. 

Cockerel. — Male  bird  less  than  a  year  old. 

Cock. — Mature  male  fowl.  A  rooster  fully  developed. 

Hen. — Mature  female  having  attained  full  vigor  is 
considered  in  the  breeding  class  after  molting. 

Pullet. — Female  less  than  a  year  old. 

Broiler. — A  young  bird  weighing  less  than  two 
pounds  dressed  weight. 

124 


FARJI  BUILDINGS  125 

Roaster. — A  young  fowl  weighing  four  pounds  or 
more  when  dressed.  Old  fowls  are  fit  only  for  stewing. 

Capon. — Male  bird  emasculated.  It  is  done  to 
increase  the  size  and  quality  of  the  flesh. 

Trio. — Two  hens  and  a  cock  bird  mated  for  breeding. 

Trapnested. — Means  that  the  hen  has  a  trap  nest 
egg  record. 

Setting  of  Eggs. — Thirteen. 

Poult. — A  pin  feather  turkey,  male  or  female,  less 
than  a  year  old. 

POULTRY  A-HOUSE 

One  of  the  homely  adjuncts  to  the  poultry  business 
is  the  A-shaped  coop.  See  Figure  77.  The  most  con- 
venient size  for  hen  and  chickens  is  two  feet  square 
on  the  ground  and  about  eighteen  inches  high.  The 


Figure  77. — A-Shaped  Protection  for  Hen  and  Chickens 

boards  should  be  cut  two  feet  long.  The  back  end  is 
boarded  solid  and  the  slatted  end  is  faced  towards 
the  sun  and  away,  from  the  wind.  When  these 
A-shaped  coops  are  made  for  turkey  hens  they  should 
be  about  three  feet  square  on  the  bottom  and  two 
feet  six  inches  high. 


126  FARM  BUILDINGS 

SIZE  OF  THE  POULTRY  HOUSE 

The  size  of  a  poultry  house  should  be  sufficient  to 
give  about  three  square  feet  of  floor  space  to  a  full 
grown  hen.  If  extra  large  fowls  are  kept  this  allow- 
ance should  be  somewhat  increased. 

The  height  of  the  ceiling  does  not  figure  with  fowls. 
A  ceiling  three  feet  high  for  laying  hens  corresponds 
to  a  house  ceiling  sixteen  or  seventeen  feet  high  for 
human  beings.  No  poultry  keeper  would  want  a 
poultry  house  as  low  as  three  feet,  because  it  would 
be  very  difficult  to  keep  the  house  clean,  so  a  com- 
promise must  be  made  and  a  medium  decided  upon. 

A  shed  roof  poultry  house  is  the  cheapest  and  the 
easiest  to  arrange  because  the  back  may  be  low  down 
and  the  front  high  enough  for  the  attendant  to  stand 
upright.  A  shed  roof  is  all  straight  work  and  may  be 
quickly  made.  If  the  roof  boards  are  cut  even  with 
the  back  wall,  without  eave  projection,  roll  roofing 
may  be  carried  down  the  roof  and  down  the  back  of  the 
house  to  the  ground  in  one  continuous  strip. 

POULTRY  FOODS  FOR  WINTER 

To  obtain  eggs  in  the  winter  time  it  is  necessary 
first  to  have  a  sanitary,  well  built  poultry  house,  then 
to  supply  considerable  protein  food.  A  very  satisfac- 
tory condensed  form  of  protein  and  phosphorus  may 
be  obtained  from  the  home  butcher  in  the  form  of 
bones  and  small  particles  of  meat  that  adhere  to  the 
bones.  To  obtain  eggs  of  good  flavor  the  scrap  must 
be  fresh  and  free  from  taint. 

A  good  bone  grinder  is  a  great  help  in  preparing 


FARM  BUILDINGS  127 

such  poultry  food.  It  must  be  fed  in  small  quantities 
with  the  full  understanding  that  it  is  a  very  rich 
food,  and  that  poultry  are  sometimes  ravenous  unless 
fed  regularly. 

The  feeding  of  meat  scrap  and  ground  bone  sup- 
plies the  food  elements  necessary  for  laying  hens 
and  prevents  the  feather  eating  and  egg  eating  habits. 
When  laying  hens  are  closely  confined  for  weeks  to- 
gether they  often  suffer  for  the  variety  that  they  are 
accustomed  to  finding  outdoors  in  summer. 

A  hen  feeding  in  the  orchard  or  pasture  field  will 
pick  up  a  blade  of  grass,  chase  a  grasshopper,  gather 
a  few  small  insects,  and  hunt  weed  seeds,  and  occa- 
sionally pick  up  a  fat,  juicy  grub,  so  that  she  manages 
to  mix  a  balanced  ration  to  supply  her  own  body 
necessities  and  to  manufacture  eggs  from  the  surplus. 
Poultry  in  confinement  keeps  the  poultry  man  or 
poultry  woman  busy  inventing  ways  of  supplying  all 
the  different  ingredients  necessary  for  a  well  balanced 
ration.  Grains,  greens,  grit  and  gumption  have  been 
mentioned  as  the  four  g's  that  are  essential  in  keeping 
poultry  in  a  house  in  the  winter  time. 

Good  winter  feeding  requires  that  part  of  the  ration 
shall  be  composed  of  grains.  A  daily  supply  of  vege- 
table matter  is  needed  for  condimental  and  laxative 
reasons.  No  fowl  can  be  thrifty  without  grit.  Grit  is 
necessary  to  grind  the  grains  and  other  foods  in  their 
crops.  The  term  gumption  is  an  inelegant  expression 
meaning  common  sense  which  is  applied  to  every 
branch  of  every  successful  poultry  business.  Lime 
also  is  needed  for  bones  and  egg  shells.  Protein  to 
build  up  muscle  and  green  bone  to  supply  phosphorus. 


125 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


129 


If 


16-0" 


130  FARM  BUILDIXGS 

XEW  YORK  POULTRY  HOUSE 

Organized  poultrymen  in  New  York  worked  a  long 
time  trying  to  build  a  poultry  house  that  would  pro- 
vide winter  comfort  and  healthful  exercise  for  the 
fowls,  together  with  ventilation  and  other  sanitary 
requirements. 

Specifications  demanded  that  the  cost  should  come 
within  the  means  of  any  farm  boy  or  village  girl 
having  sufficient  energy  and  determination  to  follow 
directions. 

The  result  was  a  plain  shed  roof  poultry  house  of 
one  room,  preferably  sixteen  feet  square,  placed  high 
side  to  the  south  and  made  wind  proof  with  building 
paper. 

Ventilation  was  secured  by  using  thin  cheese  cloth 
over  the  window  openings. 

The  fowls  are  exercised  by  inducing  them  to  scratch 
for  hidden  grain  in  straw  several  inches  or  a  foot 
deep. 

The  original  plan  was  built  sixteen  feet  square,  but 
it  may  be  built  double,  as  shown  in  Figures  78  and  79, 
with  a  partition  in  the  center,  making  two  compart- 
ments sixteen  feet  square  each.  It  is  covered  with  a 
straight  shed  roof  which  slopes  down,  from  a  front 
that  is  eight  feet  high,  to  a  low  back  wall. 

The  advantage  of  a  shed  roof  on  a  poultry  house 
is  to  admit  plenty  of  light  and  air  by  placing  the  high 
side  to  the  south  and  to  shut  out  the  cold  that  comes 
from  the  north.  The  sun  shining  against  the  high 
side  of  a  building  during  the  day  makes  the  poultry 
house  bright  and  cheerful.  The  protection  of  the 
low  roof  at  the  ba-ck  keeps  the  poultry  snug  and  com- 
fortable  at  night  while  on  the  roosts. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


131 


Figure  80  shows  the  advantage  of  a  shed  roof  for 
a  poultry  house  in  the  winter  time.  This  illustration 
also  is  a  cross  section  through  the  New  York  poultry 
house.  It  shows  the  concrete  floor  made  solid  with 


Figure  80. — Diagram  Showing  Different  Designs  for  Poultry 
House  Roof 

the  walls,  and  it  shows  the  way  the  droppings  board 
and  roosting  poles  are  placed  up  near  the  roof,  thus 
leaving  the  floor  clear  for  scratching  litter  underneath. 

COMBINED  PORTABLE  BROODER  AND  SMALL  POULTRY 
HOUSE 

A  small  house  twelve  feet  by  eight  feet  in  size  is 
convenient  to  use  as  a  laying  house  in  winter  and  a 
brooder  house  in  early  spring.  See  Figures  81,  82 
and  83.  In  figuring  the  size  of  a  house  it  is  customary 
to  provide  from  two  square  feet  to  five  square  feet  of 
floor  space  per  fowl.  The  difference  between  two 
feet  and  five  feet  is  considerable.  It  is  accounted  for 
by  the  different  kinds  of  poultry,  some  of  which  are 


132  FARM  BUILDINGS 

much  larger  than  others ;  also  different  poultrymen 
have  different  ideas  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  room 
that  poultry  should  have. 


Figure  81. — Portable  Poultry  House 

It  depends  somewhat  on  the  length  of  time  they 
are  to  be  confined.  The  more  crowded  the  house  the 
more  work  is  necessary  to  keep  the  place  clean  and 


DROPPING  BO/RD  UNDER  WOSTS 
•SCOTCHING  FLOOR 

MUSLIN 


FLOOR  P1AN 

Figure  82. — Floor  Plan  of  Portable  Poultry  House 

sanitary.  Also  the  time  of  year  has  an  influence  on 
the  capacity  of  the  house.  In  spring,  when  poultry- 
may  run  outdoors  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


133 


the  house  may  accommodate  more  poultry  than  when 
they  are  cooped  up  all  day  and  all  night  in  the  winter 
time. 

This  poultry  house  contains  ninety-six  square  feet 
of  floor  space,  which,  allowing  four  square  feet  per 
fowl,  has  a  capacity  of  twenty-four  laying  hens. 


020,55  .SECTION 

Figure  83. — Cross  Section  of  Portable  Poultry  House.  Showing 
Roosts  and  Nest  Boxes 

Two  dozen  Plymouth  Rock  hens  would  require  about 
twelve  lineal  feet  of  perch,  or  three  roosting  poles 
four  feet  long.  This  is  figuring  the  whole  floor  space, 
so  the  chicken  furniture  would  be  all  suspended  from 
the  roof  or  hung  against  the  side  walls,  thus  leaving 
the  whole  floor  covered  with  straw  for  scratching. 

Cubic  air  space  does  not  count  in  poultry  houses, 
because  there  is  always  an  excess  of  cubic  capacity  as 
compared  with  the  floor  space.  The  reason  is  that 
the  roofs  of  poultry  houses  are  always  pushed  up  to 
give  headroom  enough  for  the  attendants.  Chickens 
do  not  require  very  much  headroom.  They  would  be 
better  off  in  much  lower  houses. 

Ventilation  is  closely  connected  with  the  size  of 


134  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  house,  the  height  of  the  roof  and  the  number  of 
poultry  housed.  There  is  only  one  way  to  ventilate 
a  poultry  house,xand  that  is  by  the  use  of  thin  cotton 
cloth  or  muslin.  Some  poultry  writers  make  the  mis- 
take of  calling  it  canvas.  Canvas  means  an  air-tight, 
almost  water-tight,  substance.  The  opening  might  as 
well  be  covered  with  boards  as  to  be  blocked  shut  with 
canvas.  The  object  of  ventilation  is  to  ventilate.  The 
necessity  of  putting  thin  cloth  covers  over  a  ventilator 
opening  is  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  in. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  ventilate  poultry  houses 
by  the  methods  used  to  ventilate  cow  stables,  because 
birds  are  so  much  smaller  that  their  body  heat  is  less 
in  comparison  to  the  volume  of  air  in  the  building, 
so  that  the  principle  of  the  circulation  of  warm  air 
by  changing  the  temperature  of  a  large  quantity  of 
stale  air  is  not  possible.  But  when  twenty  or  thirty 
hens  are  crowded  together  on  a  roost  in  a  small  poultry 
house  at  night,  it  may  be  noticed  that  they  develop 
considerable  body  heat  and  that  the  air  in  a  small 
poultry  house  that  is  well  built  is  continually  moving. 
The  cold  air  comes  in  through  the  cotton  covered 
openings  and  circulates  around  the  droppings  board 
and  finds  its  way  up  to  the  roosts.  Prom  the  roosts 
the  natural  way  out  is  up  along  the  roof  to  the 
nearest  opening.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
have  two  cotton  ventilators,  one  near  the  ground  and 
one  near  the  roof. 

Small  portable  poultry  houses  always  face  the  south 
or  southeast  in  winter  and  spring.  A  good  exposure 
is  south  with  the  door  in  the  east  end,  so  that  the  north 
side  and  west  end  is  made  tight  to  prevent  draughts. 
This  is  the  best  arrangement  in  sections  where  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


135 


prevailing  cold  winds  come  from  the  north,  northwest 
and  west. 

The  plan  of  this  little  poultry  house  shows  the 
whole  surface  of  the  floor  free  from  encumbrances, 
so  that  it  may  be  covered  a  foot  deep  with  fresh 
straw  every  day  to  allow  the  poultry  full  freedom  for 
exercising  their  muscles  by  kicking  the  straw  about. 

HILLSIDE   CHICKEN   HOUSE 

Probably  the  most  successful  scratching  shed  ever 
designed  for  the  use  of  laying  hens  is  shown  in 
Figure  84.  Litter  from  the.  barn  is  thrown  into  the 


Figure  84. — Hillside  Poultry  House 


scratching  shed  just  inside  of  the  door  at  the  upper 
end.  The  incline  is  such  that  the  hens  work  the  straw 
down  to  the  lower  end  of  the  house.  When  it  gets 
there,  it  is  broken  up  so  fine  that  it  is  ready  to  go 
out  into  the  manure  heap. 


136  FARM  BUILDINGS 

In  this  plan  advantage  is  taken  of  the  disposition 
of  hens  to  face  uphill  when  using  their  feet  and 
claws  for  scratching  purposes.  Inside  this  scratching 
shed  twenty  or  fifty  hens  will  be  seen  busy  at  work 
kicking  the  litter  downhill.  It  is  built  in  connection 
with  the  winter  chicken  house  and  is  intended  to  be 
just  large  enough  to  accommodate  one  pen  of  layers. 
They  are  required  to  go  into  their  regular  roosting 
places  at  night,  but  the  small  doors  are  left  open 
so  that  they  can  come  through  at  the  first  peep  of 
daylight  to  commence  work  on  the  straw  pile  which 
the  attendant  pitched  in  after  dark,  the  night  before. 
A  little  grain  is  scattered  through  the  straw  to  add 
interest  to  the  performance.  Some  poultry  men  keep 
sheaves  of  wheat  or  other  grain  or  loose  straw  that 
has  not  been  threshed.  A  sheaf  of  oats  is  unbound 
and  the  straw  mixed  with  the  other  litter.  A  forkful 
of  buckwheat  straw  unthreshed  also  helps  the  variety. 

The  upper  end  of  the  building  is  on  level  ground, 
so  the  floor  in  this  part  is  level.  The  roof  takes  the 
slope  of  the  hill  and  is  shaped  as  shown  in  one  straight 
slab  reaching  from  the  front  end  of  the  poultry  house 
proper  to  the  lower  end  of  the  scratching  shed.  The 
window  openings  are  covered  with  screen  wire  and 
thin  muslin.  The  building  is  twelve  feet  wide  and 
may  be  thirty  feet  long.  The  upper  end  is  made  warm 
for  winter  comfort. 

FOUR-STORY  POULTRY  HOUSE 

Boys  on  the  farm,  and  girls,  too,  like  to  make  pets 
of  well  bred  poultry.  Play  houses  for  poultry  may  be 
made  practical.  Such  houses  are  divided  into  com- 
partments in  such  a  way  as  to  induce  the  hens  to  dis- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


137 


built  smaller  on  the  ground  and  higher  to  give  the 
necessary  room.  See  Figure  85.  And  they  may  be 
tribute  themselves  all  through  the  house.  It  is  done 
in  the  following  way : 


Figure  85. — Perspective  of  Four-Story  Poultry  Hou 


The  basement  is  used  for  scratching  purposes  only. 
If  the  poultry  yard  is  well  drained  the  basement  may 
be  partially  built  under  ground.  An  excavation  two 
or  three  feet  deep  is  sufficient.  It  must  not  be  deep 
enough  to  be  dark  or  damp.  Sunlight  and  dry  air 
are  both  essential  for  success  in  keeping  poultry.  See 
Figure  86. 

If  the  basement  is  made  with  a  damp  proof  cement 


138  FARM  BUILDINGS 

wall  with  a  window  reaching  clear  across  the  south 
side,  the  little  basement  may  be  made  comfortable 
in  winter.  It  is  necessary  to  have  wide  doors  across 


BA3EMEMT 


•60- 


Figure  86. — ^Basement  of  Small  Poultry  House 

the  front  for  light,  for  ventilation  and  for  cleaning. 
Every  part  of  the  poultry  house  must  be  kept  clean, 
otherwise  there  is  sure  to  be  trouble. 

Above  the  basement  wall  the  little  house  is  built  of 
studding,  building  paper  and  thin  boarding  both 
inside  and  outside  of  the  studding.  This  makes  a 
hollow  wall.  The  first  floor,  Figure  87,  is  intended  for 
a  feeding  floor.  Feed  hoppers  for  ground  oyster  shell, 
grit  and  charcoal  are  hung  to  the  sides  of  this  room, 
and  a  r^mo-abte  porcelain  or  metal  trough  for  feed- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  139 

ing  mashes  is  placed  within  easy  reach  of  the  door 
opening.  There  is  a  drinking  fountain  on  this  floor 
and  another  one  is  hung  in  the  basement. 


MATCH  ED  BOATJT55 


I**  FLOOR 
Figure  87. — First  Floor  of  Small  Poultry  House 

The  size  of  this  little  poultry  house  is  only  six  by 
four  feet  on  the  ground.  It  is  so  small  that  the 
attendant  never  goes  inside,  but  he  can  reach  in 
through  the  different  window  doors  to  attend  to  the 
wants  of  the  poultry,  and  he  has  scrapers  and  brushes 
to  use  for  cleaning  purposes.  A  hinged  window 
reaches  clear  across  the  front  of  the  little  building  at 
each  floor. 

The  second  floor,  Figure  88,  is  made  dark  and  is 
used  for  laying  purposes.  The  nest  boxes  or  bottom- 
less racks  are  placed  on  the  floor  and  are  made  easily 
removable  so  they  may  be  lifted  out  for  cleaning. 


140 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


ME5TJ 
BOXES 


2  «  FLOOR 
Figure  88. — Second  Floor  of  Small  Poultry  House 


i 


PERCHES 


Figure  89. — ^Third  Floor  of  Small  Poultry  House 


FARM  BUILDINGS  141 

The  top  floor,  Figure  89,  is  the  attic  and  is  used  for 
roosting.  The  only  perches  in  the  house  are  in  the 
attic.  The  attic  is  not  lighted  in  the  usual  way,  but 
there  is  an  opening  for  ventilation.  This  opening  is 
covered  with  thin  cotton  so  that  sufficient  light  is 
admitted.  The  opening  extends  clear  across  the  front 
of  the  house  and  is  closed  by  a  door  frame  that  hinges 
at  the  top  and  is  covered  with  wire  netting  on  one 
side  and  cotton  on  the  other.  The  sill  under  this 
door  is  on  a  level  with  the  floor  inside  and  extends 
out  several  inches  beyond  the  front  boarding  of  the 
house  door. 

There  is  a  metal  droppings  pan  which  covers  this 
floor  all  but  the  stairway,  or  it  may  be  made  in  two 
pans  if  necessary.  It  consists  of  a  sheet  of  galvanized 
iron  turned  up  about  half  an  inch  at  the  edges.  This 
pan  is  easily  removable  at  cleaning  time. 

The  roosts  are  supported  on  low  trestles  about  eight 
inches  high.  The  trestles  stand  on  the  metal  droppings 
pan  and  are  lifted  off  for  cleaning. 

At  the  east  end  of  the  house  there  are  three  stair- 
ways, one  over  the  other,  each  hinged  at  the  top  to 
close  like  so  many  trap  doors  at  house  cleaning  time. 

In  practice  it  is  noticed  that  the  hens  occupy  the 
whole  house,  according  to  their  moods  and  fancies.  In 
the  morning  when  the  sun  shines  they  will  be  found 
down  in  the  basement  scratching  among  the  litter  for 
scattered  grains.  They  are  continually  going  up  and 
down  to  the  second  floor  to  pick  lime,  gravel,  charcoal 
or  condiments  from  the  supply  hoppers,  and  they 
always  climb  up  to  the  attic  when  they  want  to  go  to 
roost. 

The  third  floor  is  a  quiet  place  and  the  hens  sneak  off 


142  FARM  BUILDINGS 

into  this  room  for  laying.  Occasionally  a  brooding  hen 
takes  a  fancy  to  the  third  floor  for  solitude.  Upon 
the  whole,  it  is  a  satisfactory  small  poultry  house  that 
will  accommodate  from  a  dozen  to  twenty  or  thirty 
hens,  according  to  size,  and  it  is  so  built  that  it  is 
easily  kept  sanitary  and  warm  enough,  and  it  is  well 
ventilated  to  keep  the  poultry  comfortable  and  in  good 
health. 

Cleanliness  is  the  main  requirement.  Good  feeding 
comes  next.  But  both  depend  upon  the  way  in  which 
the  poultry  house  is  built. 

POULTRY  FEED  HOPPEES 

A  feed  hopper  is  used  for  dry  feed  such  as  small 
grains,  bran,  etc.  A  hopper  should  deliver  all  of  the 
feed;  otherwise  what  remains  in  the  corners  of  the 
hopper  will  become  old  and  musty  and  unfit  for  use. 

Figure  90  shows  the  proper  design  for  a  feed  hop- 
per. It  may  be  any  size,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
chickens  to  be  fed.  TEe  same  principle  holds  for  a 
small  chicken  feeder  or  large  feeder  for  laying  hens. 
For  larger  birds  the  hopper  is  hung  well  up  above  the 
floor  and  it  is  better  to  slant  the  cover  so  the  chickens 
will  slide  off  when  they  try  to  roost  there."  The 
incline  forming  the  front  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
hopper-back  should  deliver  the  last  particle  of  feed 
where  it  may  be  reached. 

In  the  summer  when  chickens  are  running  out  they 
get  bits  of  gravel  and  lime  and  weed  seeds,  which 
together  with  insects  make  up  a  natural  ration.  In 
the  winter  time  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow 
and  the  insects  are  all  hibernating,  poultry  often  suf- 
fer because  they  do  not  have  access  to  nature's  condi- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


143 


ments  which  are  required  to  keep  them  in  good  phys- 
ical condition. 

Such  substances  as  ground  oyster  shell,  or  some 
other  form  of  lime,  and  small  gravel  stones  for  grit, 


Figure  90. — Section  Through  Poultry  Feed  Hopper  Designed 
to  Hang  Against  a  Wall.  These  Feed  Hoppers  May  Be  Made 
Any  Length  and  Divided  by  Partitions  to  Hold  the  Different 
Kinds  of  Poultry  Hopper  Feeds.  Grit,  Charcoal,  etc. 

are  best  kept  in  hoppers.  Another  substance  that  may 
be  constantly  kept  before  poultry  in  one  compartment 
of  the  hopper  is  charcoal. 

Wheat  bran  is  another  hopper  food.  Different  kinds 
of  grains  may  be  kept  in  the  hoppers,  but  a  good 
many  poultrymen  prefer  to  scatter  grains  in  the  straw 


144 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


to  encourage  the  chickens  to  dig  for  it.  The  digging 
and  the  hunting  around  amongst  the  straw,  six  inches 
or  a  foot  in  depth  all  over  the  floor,  will  induce  the 
chickens  to  take  the  'necessary  exercise  to  keep  their 
blood  in  circulation. 


Figure  91. — Double  Poultry  Feeding  Trough  with  Partition   In 
the  Center 

The  accompanying  diagrams,  Figures  90,  91,  92  and 
93,  show  several  styles  of  feed  hoppers  that  are  well 
calculated  to  keep  the  different  kinds  of  dry  substances 
clean  and  within  reach  at  all  times. 


Figure  92. — Poultry  Feeder  with  Metal  or  Crockery  Receptacle 

Keeping  poultry  supplies  around  poultry  houses  in 
open  boxes  on  the  ground  is  wasteful  of  good  food 
and  floor  space.  The  advantage  of  hoppers  is  that 
besides  keeping  the  different  substances  clean  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


145 


preventing  waste,  they  are  hung  up  out  of  the  way. 
The  different  hoppers  should  be  placed  just  high 
enough  so  the  poultry  may  easily  reach  the  feeder 
troughs. 


Figure  93. — Poultry  Fountain  Feeder  for  Grain 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  delivery  trough  has  a 
ledge  or  guard  at  the  front  that  projects  in.  The 
purpose  of  this  is  to  prevent  chickens  from  throwing 
the  materials  out  with  their  beaks.  Chickens  are 
never  satisfied  to  pick  what  lies  on  top.  Their  nature 
is  to  eat  from  the  bottom.  If  they  cannot  scratch 
the  stuff  away,  they  try  to  throw  it  towards  them 
•with  their  beaks.  Sometimes  these  guards  are  hinged 
so  that  they  may  be  turned  back  for  cleaning. 


146  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Generally  speaking,  however,  these  hoppers  always 
are  kept  dry.  The  materials  are  dry  and  the  hoppers 
are  hung  against  the  wall  in  a  dry  place,  so  that  they 
do  not  require  cleaning  very  often,  but  on  general 
principles,  everything  that  belongs  to  a  poultry  house 
should  be  so  arranged  that  every  corner  and  crevice 
may  be  examined  for  accumulations  of  dirt.  Dirt  har- 
bors vermin  and  vermin  is  the  great  source  of  loss 
amongst  poultry. 

A  double  hopper  to  feed  from  both  sides  with  a 
top  that  slants  in  two  directions  leaves  a  ridge  that 
the  fowls  are  quick  to  appropriate  as  a  perch.  It  is 
perfectly  natural  for  chickens  to  utilize  any  ledge 
that  offers  support  for  their  feet. 

Like  all  other  rules  in  regard  to  poultry,  there  is 
a  reason  for  this  one.  The  shape  of  a  chicken's  foot 
and  the  toe  muscles  are  intended  by  nature  to  grasp 
the  limb  of  a  tree.  When  a  chicken  sits  down,  the 
muscles  contract  to  draw  the  toes  around  the  limb. 
This  is  the  reason  why  a  chicken  can  sit  all  night  on  a 
swinging  limb  in  windy  weather.  The  toes  grasp  the 
limb  automatically  and  hold  the  sleeping  chicken  in 
an  upright  position. 

Following  out  this  principle,  it  is  easily  understood 
why  poultry  object  to  standing  on  a  hard  level  floor. 
The  toes  are  extended  and  the  tendons  are  strained. 
This  peculiarity  of  the  formation  of  a  chicken's  foot 
also  accounts  for  its  scratching  proclivities  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  A  chicken  scratches  to  unearth  food  until 
it  becomes  a  fixed  habit.  The  act  of  scratching  also 
relieves  the  tension  of  the  toe  tendons  which  urges 
the  fowl  to  increased  activity. 

If  all  poultrymen  understood  the  peculiarities  of 


FARM  BUILDINGS  147 

the  feet  of  fowls,  more  straw  would  be  provided  for 
their  comfort  in  the  poultry  houses.  Also  plenty  of 
roosts  properly  built  and  easy  of  access  would  be 
arranged  for  their  comfort  and  convenience  when  not 
feeding.  Chickens  enjoy  standing  in  straw  because 
they  can  close  their  toes  and  relieve  the  muscle  tension. 

SANITARY  POULTRY  FEED  TROUGH 

When  chickens  are  fed  warm  mashes  in  an  ordinary 
trough,  they  fight  each  other  in  their  eagerness  to 
get  what  they  consider  their  proper  share. 

The  illustration,  Figure  91,  shows  a  feeding  trough 
with  an  upright  partition  in  the  center.  This  par- 
tition is  bored  with  one-quarter  inch  holes  an  inch 
apart,  and  one-quarter  inch  rods,  twelve  inches  long, 
are  driven  into  these  holes,  so  that  they  stand  upright. 
It  is  the  only  device  ever  invented  that  will  prevent 
chickens  from  standing  on  the  side  of  the  trough  or 
perching  on  the  top  of  the  division  board  when  the 
trough  is  made  double. 

It  is  better  to  smooth  the  top  ends  of  the  quarter- 
inch  rods  to  prevent  injury  to  the  poultry  in  their 
attempts  to  plant  themselves  on  the  top  of  these 
spindles.  Chickens  soon  learn  that  the  trick  cannot 
be  successfully  performed.  They  seldom  make  more 
than  one  or  two  attempts. 

The  center  division  board  should  be  several  inches 
higher  than  the  sides  of  the  trough,  but  four  inches 
is  wide  enough  for  each  trough.  The  length  may  be 
from  four  to  eight  feet  for  easy  handling  and  cleaning. 

Troughs  for  feeding  wet  mashes  must  be  kept  clean. 
Poultrymen  who  object  to  mashes,  and  say  that  mashes 
are  injurious,  are  the  fellows  who  neglect  to  clean 


148  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  troughs.  There  is  nothing  injurious  about  a 
fresh  mash  mixed  with  wholesome  foods  and  given 
to  the  poultry  in  clean  troughs  before  fermentation 
has  an  opportunity  to  make  mischief. 

A  self  feeder  for  poultry  that  keeps  the  feed  clean 
is  made  one  foot  wide  and  long  enough  to  accommo- 
date the  number  of  chickens  to  be  fed.  Figure  92. 
The  cover  is  made  with  a  ridge  in  the  center  and 
slopes  down  to  each  side.  The  cover  is  made  steep 
enough  to  slide  the  chickens  off  when  they  attempt  to 
perch  on  it. 

For  mashes  there  must  be  a  tin  pan  made  to  fit 
inside.  This  is  taken  out  and  cleaned  and  scalded  each 
day  to  prevent  disease.  A  floor  is  not  necessary.  It 
is  more  easily  cleaned  without  a  floor. 

Figure  93  shows  a  bottle  grain  feeder  for  poultry. 
A  shallow  box  is  fitted  with  a  piece  of  wood  extending 
diagonally  across  from  one  corner  to  the  other.  A 
common  milk  bottle  is  fitted  into  two  wire  staples 
attached  to  an  upright  post  as  shown  in  the  cut.  The 
bottle  is  filled  with  small  grain  and  is  inverted  over 
the  wooden  strip.  The  grain  runs  out  as  fast  as  it 
is  eaten  by  the  chickens. 

POULTBY  CATCHING  HOOK,  OR  HOW  TO  BREAK  A 
CHICKEN'S  LEG 

A  catcher  for  poultry  is  easily  made  by  bending 
a  number  ten  wire  the  shape  shown  in  Figure  9-4. 
The  straight  end  of  the  wire  is  driven  into  the  end 
of  a  short  stick.  By  reaching  out  quickly  while  the 
flock  is  feeding  the  wire  may  be  hooked  over  the 
chicken's  lower  leg  just  above  the  foot.  It  must  be 
used  with  considerable  care  to  prevent  the  chicken 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


149 


from  turning  over.  It  is  easy  to  break  a  leg  when  a 
chicken  is  napping  or  floundering  with  its  foot  caught 
fast.  The  loop  on  the  outer  end  of  the  hook  is  to 
prevent  catching  and  tearing  the  chicken's  skin. 


Figure  94. — Poultry  Catching  Hook 
A  CHICKEN  OILER 

Some  poultrymen  adopt  the  plan  of  hanging  a  tin 
can  with  a  lamp  wick  drawn  through  the  bottom  over 


VftLL 

HANGER 


£ 


TlNCA! 


WtM 

DOOfcx 

ROOR-) 


JOIST 


Figure  95. — Poultry  Oiling  Device  for  Coal  Oil 


150  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  little  doorway  that  the  chickens  pass  through.    See 
Figure  95. 

Any  tin  can  that  will  hold  water  will  answer  the 
purpose.  A  cold  chisel  is  driven  through  the  bottom 
and  a  lamp  wick  is  drawn  tight  into  the  cut  made  by 
the  cold  chisel.  Coal  oil  is  then  put  into  the  can 
and  it  is  hung  over  the  little  chicken  doorway  just 
high  enough  so  that  the  wick  touches  the  feathers  as 
the  hens  pass  through.  The  wick  should  be  wet  with 
coal  oil  but  not  wet  enough  to  drip.  Two  or  three 
trials  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  cut  just  right,  so 
that  the  wick  will  pull  through  tight  enough  to  prevent 
leaking.  Lice  will  not  settle  on  a  hen  when  the 
feathers  are  wet  with  coal  oil.  This  remedy,  however, 
must  be  applied  with  caution  and  common  sense.  Like 
many  other  contrivances  invented  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poultry,  it  may  be  a  good  thing  if  carefully  managed 
and  not  worked  too  hard. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CONCRETE  ON  THE  FARM 

CONCRETE    BARNYARDS,    PIERS,    FLOORS,    WALKS,    WATER 
TANKS,   POSTS  AND  GENERAL  FARM   REPAIR  WORK 

Portland  cement  has  been  used  on  American  farms 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  but  concrete  in  its 
various  forms  only  recently  came  into  general  farm 
use. 

Portland  cement  mortar  was  used  by  our  grand- 
fathers to  plaster  cisterns  and  to  lay  up  brick  walls 
in  damp  places.  It  was  made  the  same  as  we  make 
it  now  when  we  have  particular  work  to  do — by  mixing 
together  one  of  cement  and  two  of  sand.  And  our 
ancestors  were  particular  about  the  kind  of  sand  even 
as  we  are. 

One  of  their  old  cisterns  may  be  seen  near  the  town 
of  Spencer,  Indiana.  It  is  shaped  like  a  jug,  about 
sixteen  feet  deep  and  is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preser- 
vation with  several  feet  of  water  in  it.  The  old  house 
was  burned  many  years  ago  and  the  land  has  grown 
up  with  trees. 

Concrete  on  the  farm  is  a  very  different  proposition 
from  concrete  in  a  twenty-story  city  skyscraper.  Farm- 
ers have  their  own  ideas  in  regard  to  the  most  satisfac- 
tory way  to  use  cement  on  the  farm  and  they  are  based 
on  economic  principles.  This  statement  does  not  mean 
151 


152 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


that  cheap  or  careless  methods  prevail,  but  fanners 
have  repeatedly  proved  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
spend  a  dollar  a  square  foot  in  making  a  concrete 
feeding  floor  for  hogs  or  a  clean  foot  path  to  the  dairy 
house.  Farmers  know  that  puddling  the  bottom  of  a 
hog  wallow  will  hold  water,  but  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
cement  will  add  dignity  and  durability.  Farmers  also 
know  that  a  small  amount  of  cement  if  well  mixed 
with  clean  sand  and  quickly  applied  will  stick  rough 
stones  together  to  make  a  rat  proof  foundation  wall 
good  enough  to  support  a  chicken  house  or  other  light 
building. 

Graduate  engineers  may  not  always  agree  with  farm 
methods,  but  they  are  not  familiar  with  farm  limita- 


Figrure  96. — Concrete  Barnyard,  Laid  In  Blocks  Like  a  Sidewalk 

tions.  There  were  no  concrete  engineers  when  the 
Indiana  cistern  was  plastered  against  the  elay  sides  of 
a  hole  in  the  ground. 

At  the  same  time  farmers  are  well  aware  of  the 
progress  in  concrete  building  construction  and  they 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


153 


are  waiting  patiently  for  architects  to  invent  sensible 
artistic  designs  for  concrete  parts  of  farm  buildings. 

The  idea  of  constructing  a  whole  building  of  con- 
crete never  interested  farmers  because  of  the  cold  life- 
less tombstone  effect.  Such  a  building  makes  a  poor 
companion  piece  to  a  herd  of  warm  blooded  Holsteins 
in  a  setting  of  green  fields  and  leafy  shade  trees. 

Paved  Barnyard. — Figure  96  shows  a  paved  barn- 
yard. The  blocks  are  about  five  by  seven  feet  with 


ENGINE 

Figure  97. — Concrete  Engine  Pier 


154 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


hot  asphalt  pitch  run  into  the  joints.  The  floor  slopes 
away  from  the  stable  with  a  fall  of  about  one  inch  to 
the  rod.  It  is  bordered  by  a  concrete  curb  along  the 
edges  to  make  a  neat  finish  and  to  protect  the  floor 
from  rooting  hogs. 

Figure  97  shows  a  concrete  engine  pier.  The  farm 
engine  works  better  when  it  has  solid  footing.  Con- 
crete work  subject  to  vibration  requires  a  mixture  of 
one  part  cement,  two  parts  sand  and  four  parts  gravel. 
Screen  the  materials  carefully,  measure  accurately,  use 
clean  water,  mix  first  dry  to  a  uniform  color,  then 
mix  wet  to  a  quaky  consistency  and  fill  into  the  form 
quickly.  Use  no  large  stones.  Be  particular.  The 
size  of  an  engine  pier  should  be  about  a  foot  larger 
each  way  than  the  engine  bed,  which  allows  for  a  six 
inch  projection  all  around.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  avoid 
sharp  corners  and  edges  by  fitting  triangular  pieces 
into  all  corners  of  the  mould.  The  illustration  shows 
how  the  bolts  are  embedded.  To  properly  place  the 
bolts  make  a  template  with  holes  to  correspond  with 
the  bolt  holes  in  the  engine  bed. 

Concrete  Scale  Pit. — Figure  98  shows  a  concrete 
scale  pit.  Farm  scales  never  were  properly  set  until 
they  were  set  in  concrete.  The  drawing  shows  a  6,000 
pound  farm  scale  in  a  water  proof  concrete  pit.  There 


Flgrure  98. — Concrete  Farm  Scale  Base  and  Pit 


FARM  BUILDINGS  155 

are  eye-bolts  along  the  sides.  Stock  panels  are  hooked 
to  these  eye-bolts  when  farm  animals  are  weighed. 
Bumper  strips  of  hard  wood  are  shown  at  the  ends 
of  the  concrete  to  take  the  jar  from  wagon  wheels. 
The  weighing  platform  is  made  of  two-inch  plank.  . 

Concrete  Hog  Wallow. — Figure  99  shows  a  hog  wal- 
low which  should  be  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
deep.  It  may  be  any  size  across  and  almost  any 
shape,  but  it  is  better  to  have  several  small  wallows 


i  cmckrj  or  ijraytl' 

Figure  99. — Concrete  Hog  Wallow,  Showing  Drain  Pipe 

rather  than  only  a  single  large  one.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  put  much  expense  on  a  hog  wallow.  The 
drawing  shows  a  permanent  foundation  for  ground 
that  may  become  wet  in  cold  weather.  Heaving  or 
breaking  by  freezing  is  thus  guarded  against,  but,  it 
is  better  to  dig  a  hole  and  plaster  the  concrete  directly 
on  the  earth  than  to  let  the  hogs  go  without  a  wallow 
because  of  the  extra  expense  of  making  it  right.  This 
is  one  of  the  concrete  structures  that  may  be  slighted 
in  the  making  without  serious  results.  If  it  breaks 
with  the  frost  it  may  be  patched.  The  two-inch  drain 
pipe  should  project  out  at  the  side  of  the  bank  or 
raise  of  ground  selected  for  the  wallow.  This  pipe 
may  then  be  punched  through  with  a  stick  or  iron 
rod  when  it  chokes  full  of  mud. 


156  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Figure  100  shows  two  ways  of  reinforcing  a  con- 
crete trough.  One  cut  represents  a  hog  trough  rein- 
forced with  poultry  netting,  the  other  is  reinforced 
with  quarter  inch  round  steel  or  iron  rods.  There 


Figure  100. — Showing  Two  Ways  to  Reinforce  a  Concrete 
Feeding  Trough 

should  be  two  rods  in  each  side  in  addition  to  the 
bottom  rods  shown  in  the  cut.  Concrete  troughs  are 
cast  upside  down  in  the  mould  and  the  soft  concrete 
is  struck  off  even  to  shape  the  trough  bottom.  A  mix- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


157 


ture  of  1  :iy2  is  used  for  troughs.  The  cement  must 
be  fresh  and  lively  and  the  sand  fine  and  clean.  Pure 
water  is  essential. 

Concrete  Hog  House  Alley. — The  center  alley  in  a 
winter  hog  house  should  be  well  rounded  in  the  center 
with  two  well  denned  gutters.  See  Figure  101. 


Figure  101. — Concrete  Center  Alley  for  Hog  House.  The  Upper 
Illustration  Represents  the  Wooden  Template  Used  to  Form  the 
Center  of  the  Hog  House  Floor 

do  not  slip  and  hurt  themselves  on  wet  concrete  like 
larger  animals.  They  are  not  in  the  center  alley  often 
so  it  is  better  to  build  the  alley  and  the  floors  to  be 
easily  cleaned  with  the  hose.  The  floors  of  the  pens 
slope  towards  the  alley  with  a  fall  of  about  one  inch 
in  ten  feet  to  keep  back  ends  of  the  pens  dry.  The 
wooden  template  shapes  the  center  of  the  alley  and 
both  gutters  at  the  same  time. 

Permanent  Mail  Bar.— Figure  102  shows  a  copper 
mail  box  and  concrete  post.  The  post  may  stand  out 
alone  at  the  side  of  the  road  or  it  may  be  part  of  the 
entrance  gateway.  It  must  be  easy  of  access.  Bolts 


158 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


are  embedded  into  the  concrete  to  hold  the  mail  box 
in  place. 


•v. 


Figure  102. — Farm  Gate  Post  with  Copper  Mail  Box 

Clothes  Line  Reel. — Figure  103  shows  a  clothes  line 
reel  set  on  a  concrete  post.  The  reinforcing  rods  are 
threaded  and  project  above  the  post.  The  bottom  of 
the  reel  box  is  bored  to  fit  the  rods  and  the  nuts  are 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


159 


screwed  down  to  hold  the  box  firmly  in  place.     The 
top  is  covered  with  felt  roofing. 


Figure  103. — Concrete  Post  Supporting  a  Waterproof  Clothes 
Line  Reel  Box 


CHAPTER  XIII 

COMFORTABLE  FAEM  HOMES 

SHOWING  FARM   HOUSE  PLANS  WITH   HOT  AND  COLD 

RUNNING  WATER,   DRAINAGE,   HEAT, 

LIGHT  AND  POWER. 

FOUNDATIONS  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Different  Kinds  of  Basement  Walls. — A  well  built 
house  or  barn  must  have  a  solid  foundation,  which 
commences  with  the  footings  of  the  walls  and  center 
piers.  The  width  of  the  footings  will  depend  somewhat 
on  the  character  and  weight  of  the  building.  In  every 
case  the  footings  of  walls  and  piers  should'  be  wide 
enough  to  positively  prevent  settling.  A  little  extra 
expense  when  building  is  saved  in  after  repairs.  If 
walls  or  center  piers  settle,  the  floors  are  pitched  out  of 
level,  the  doors  stick  either  at  top  or  bottom  and  cracks 
break  across  the  plastered  walls,  window  and  door 
casings  open  at  the  joints  and  unnatural  strains  are 
put  upon  the  frame  work. 

Staking  the  Cellar. — First  set  one  corner  stake 
where  it  properly  belongs.  Then  stretch  a  line,  100 
feet  or  more  in  length,  parallel  with  the  road,  or,  set 
a  stake  some  distance  away  to  sight  to.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  stake  the  road  for  half  a  mile  or  so  to 
get  the  true  line.  The  diagram  shows  how  the  stakes 
and  lines  look  when  the  staking  is  finished.  The  first 

160 


FARM  BUILDINGS  161 

corner  is  made  square  by  the  "rule  of  six,  eight  and 
ten. ' '  After  setting  the  first  two  stakes,  usually  across 
the  front  of  the  proposed  building,  then  one  side  line 
is  stretched  and  squared  first  by  using  a  carpenter's 
steel  square  against  the  lines  at  the  first  corner.  This 
squaring  will  not  be  accurate  but  it  will  be  near 


Figure  104. — Diagram  Showing  How  to  Stake  the  Foundation 
of  a  Farm  Building  so  the  Excavation  Can  Be  Made  Clear  Out 
to  the  Corners  without  Undermining  the  Stakes 

enough  to  set  the  temporary  stakes  while  making  the 
preliminary  measurements.  Before  the  stakes  are 
driven  solid,  measure  accurately  six  feet  from  the 
first  corner  and  stick  a  pin  through  the  line.  Then 
measure  eight  feet  on  the  other  line,  from  the  same 
corner  and  stick  a  pin.  If  the  ten  foot  pole  proves 
that  the  pins  are  exactly  ten  feet  apart  at  the  places 
where  they  intersect  the  two  lines  then  the  corner  is 
square.  With  this  double  arrangement  the  excava- 


162  FARM  BUILDINGS 

tion  may  be  dug  square  into  each  corner  without  dis- 
turbing the  stakes. 

House  foundations  are  built  differently  in  each 
building  section.  Concrete  probably  is  the  most  uni- 
versal material  used  for  house  walls,  but  the  cost  of 
concrete  varies  according  to  the  price  of  local  mate- 
rials. Sometimes  gravel  banks  at  home  may  be  tapped 
that  furnish  both  sand  and  gravel,  and  it  may  be 
used  for  foundation  walls  and  piers  without  screening 
or  the  addition  of  any  material  except  cement  and 
water.  Farmers  who  have  access  to  such  a  bank  are 
fortunate.  They  may  make  the  excavations  and  build 
a  wall  right  up  to  the  first  floor,  giving  the  regulation 
seven  and  one-half  foot  farm  basement  headroom  at  a 
minimum  of  expense. 

There  are  other  places,  however,  where  concrete 
walls  are  desirable,  but  the  materials  are  shipped  in 
from  a  distance.  Usually  sand  and  aggregate  that 
pay  freight  are  selected  with  considerable  care.  The 
sand  is  clean  and  the  aggregate  is  rough  and  clean, 
so  that  a  thin  wall  may  be  constructed  stronger  than 
a  thicker  wall  of  course  bank  gravel  and  sand  of 
nature's  mixing. 

In  some  localities  where  wall  material  is  expensive, 
it  is  customary  to  build  a  cellar  wall  up  to  and  a 
little  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  space 
between  the  top  of  this  low  wall  and  the  sill  that 
supports  the  joists  of  the  first  floor  is  filled  in  with 
short  uprights  of  two  by  fours  or  two  by  sixes,  or  two 
by  eights,  according  to  the  weight  and  the  general 
character  of  the  house.  "When  cellar  wall  material 
is  expensive  this  so-called  "false  work"  effects  a  sav- 
ing in  expense,  and  for  ordinary  house  construction 


FARM  BUILDINGS  163 

it  is  considered  almost  as  good.  It  offers  the  advan- 
tage of  building  a  plain  straight  foundation  wall  on 
four  sides  of  the  house  without  a  break,  as  the  win- 
dows are  above  and  the  wall  is  level  and  smooth  on 
top.  If  the  work  is  well  done  it  makes  a  foundation 
that  cannot  settle  or  crack. 

Sometimes  such  walls  are  waterproofed  either  out- 
side or  inside,  or  both.  If  outside  waterproofing  is 
deemed  necessary,  because  of  a  saturated  soil  at  cer- 
tain times  during  the  year,  the  excavation  must  be 
enough  larger  to  permit  the  use  of  a  trowel  outside 
of  the  wall.  If  cement  waterproofing  is  put  on  by 
a  spray  machine  or  with  a  brush,  the  space  required 
will  be  about  the  same. 

There  are  building  sites,  otherwise  desirable,  that 
give  trouble  in  the  spring  when  the  snow  is  melting 
and  the  frost  is  going  out  of  the  ground.  Many  cel- 
lars are  flooded  at  this  time  of  year  that  are  dry 
enough  at  all  other  times.  Building  sites  vary  a  great 
deal  in  this  respect.  There  may  be  a  springy  spot  on 
one  lot  while  the  ground  is  as  dry  as  a  bone  on  all  the 
adjacent  lots.  These  peculiarities  are  not  discovered 
until  the  excavations  are  made,  and  not  then  if  the 
hole  is  dug  at  a  dry  time.  Sometimes  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  dig  a  trench  all  around  a  cellar 
and  trowel  the  whole  wall  with  a  rich  cement  mortar. 
To  make  a  thorough  job,  it  is  better  to  put  a  line  of 
tile  outside  of  the  wall  as  near  the  footings  as  pos- 
sible. A  little  below  the  footing  is  even  better  if  the 
proper  outlet  may  be  secured. 

Because  the  whole  wall  is  footed  at  the  same  time 
the  work  apparently  is  of  more  importance  and  it 
receives  better  consideration  than  the  piers.  It  is  a 


164  FARM  BUILDINGS 

man's  job  to  lay  footings  of  walls,  but  according  to 
the  ideas  of  some  builders  any  boy  can  build  a  pier. 
At  the  same  time  the  eye  of  the  owner  may  be  bene- 
fical  in  starting  the  wall. 

When  walls  are  built  up  of  concrete  it  is  customary 
to  make  the  earth  answer  in  place  of  an  outside  form 
in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to  dig  the  cellar  care- 
fully to  line  and  plumb.  The  inside  form  is  built  of 
wood  in  the  usual  way  and  substantially  braced  across 
the  excavation  to  the  opposite  form.  Concrete,  stone 
and  aggregate  is  then  dumped  in  to  fill  the  space  and 
the  wall  is  kept  level  all  around  as  it  rises  between 
the  wood  frame  and  the  earth. 

If  broken  stone  or  small  boulders  may  be  picked  up 
about  the  place  then  the  cheapest  way  to  lay  up  a  wall 
is  to  put  in  a  layer  of  stone  and  pour  in  thin  concrete 
cement  mortar  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  stones. 
In  order  to  secure  a  good  bond,  the  stones  must  be 
wet  before  they  are  thrown  in,  or  sprinkled  with  water 
in  the  trench.  To  bind  a  wall  all  solid  together,  so 
there  will  be  no  cracks  or  breaks  in  it,  requires  that 
the  work  shall  be  well  done,  but  not  necessarily  rich  in 
cement.  An  ordinary  cellar  wall  may  be  rather  poor 
in  cement  if  plenty  of  water  is  used  together  with 
the  right  proportions  of  cement,  sand  and  aggregate. 
It  is  important  that  the  mortar  be  handled  quickly. 
A  great  deal  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  sand  and 
aggregate.  Ten  per  cent  of  clay  or  mud  should  be 
the  limit.  Clay  gets  between  the  cement  and  the 
aggregate  and  prevents  proper  adhesion. 

Wall  Materials. — Cellar  walls  may  be  made  of  stone 
laid  up  as  masonry,  hard  burned  brick,  concrete 
blocks,  solid  concrete,  or  a  combination  of  stone  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS  165 

poured  concrete  or  a  combination  of  hard  burned  brick 
bats  and  poured  concrete. 

In  fact,  there  are  many  ways  of  making  cellar  walls. 
Local  custom  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with  determining 
the  manner  in  which  a  wall  should  be  built.  Local 
materials  usually  are  selected  because  they  are 
cheaper.  Sometimes  a  good  quality  of  mixed  sand 
and  gravel  may  be  made  in  gravel  banks  near  at 
hand,  while  in,  other  places,  sand,  gravel  or  other 
aggregate  must  be  shipped  long  distances  at  con- 
siderable expense.  Sometimes  there  is  no  gravel  or 
stone,  but  a  good  home  brick  yard  can  supply  a  hard 
grade  of  brick  at  low  prices  that  will  work  into  a 
cellar  wall  to  good  advantage. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  cellar  walls  are  made 
of  hard  burned  brick,  made  specially  for  underground 
work.  In  other  places,  stone  is  abundant,  so  that 
stone  walls  are  cheaper  than  any  other  good  cellar 
wall  material.  When  all  cellar  wall  materials  are 
scarce  or  expensive,  and  wood  is  cheaper,  then  it  is 
customary  to  build  the  foundation  wall  up  to  the  level 
of  the  ground  only  and  a  superstructure  of  wood  is 
built  up  between  the  top  of  the  cellar  wall  and  the 
joists  of  the  main  floor. 

"Where  stones  are  abundant  and  skilled  masons  are 
scarce,  it  is  easy  to  lay  up  a  stone  wall  between  forms 
by  throwing  in  a  layer  of  stone,  then  pouring  in 
enough  thin  grout  cement  mortar  to  work  around  the, 
layer  of  stones.  Walls  built  in  this  way  should  have 
the  stones  laid  flat  and  the  cement  mortar  should  be 
thin  enough  to  work  in  well  around  the  stones.  The 
mortar  sticks  to  the  stones  much  better  if  the  stones 
are  wet  before  the  cement  reaches  them.  The  stones 


166  FARM  BUILDINGS 

may  be  sprinkled  in  the  forms  but  are  better  soaked 
in  water  before  being  dropped  into  the  forms.  It  is 
difficult  or  impossible  to  drown  cement  with  water  so 
long  as  the  "soup ' '  is  confined  so  the  cement  is  not  car- 
ried away  with  the  wash. 

When  the  wall  is  low  and  the  house  is  small,  a 
light  house  frame  of  two  by  four  studding  is  toe- 
nailed  into  a  double  two  by  four  sill,  set  in  soft  cement 
mortar  on  top  of  the  wall.  Girts  are  gained  into  the 
studding  one-half  inch  at  the  right  height  to  support 
the  floor  joists.  This  girt  is  thoroughly  well  spiked 
to  each  upright,  and  the  ends  of  the  joists  are  spiked 
to  the  studding  at  ever  opportunity.  It  may  not  be 
necessary  to  space  all  of  the  joists  to  come  against  the 
studding.  The  weight  and  importance  of  the  building 
will  decide  the  distance  apart  for  the  timbers. 

Hard  Brick  for  Walls. — In  some  localities  brick 
walls  are  used  extensively  under  houses.  The  reason 
is  that  bricks  are  made  locally  and  the  materials  for 
concrete  work  are  scarce. 

Good  hard  burned  bricks  when  properly  laid  into 
a  cellar  wall  give  good  satisfaction.  The  best  brick 
wall,  however,  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  as  a  thor- 
oughly well  built  concrete  wall  of  the  same  thickness. 
Bricks  may  be  waterproofed  by  painting  the  outside 
of  the  wall  or  by  plastering  it  with  cement  mortar. 

In  sections  of  the  country  where  it  is  necessary  to 
ship  in  bricks  for  walls,  also  sand  and  aggregate  to 
make  concrete,  the  preference  should  be  given  to  con- 
crete construction.  Freight  is  expensive  in  both  cases, 
but  concrete  is  more  valuable.  There  is  such  variation 
in  prices  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  estimates  in  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS  167 

cost  of  building  that  will  apply  satisfactorily  in  dif- 
ferent localities. 

Center  Piers. — Most  houses  that  have  stood  for  a 
year  or  two  have  settled  in  places  sufficient  to  crack 
the  plaster  or  to  prevent  doors  from  shutting  properly. 
The  trouble  may  be  in  one  or  more  of  the  side  walls, 
or  it  may  be  confined  to  the  center  partitions. 

There  are  piers  under  the  center  of  most  houses, 
and  very  often  these  piers  are  so  carelessly  constructed 
that  they  settle  at  one  side  or  one  corner.  It  is  a 
common  practice  in  cheap  houses  to  put  in  small  con- 
crete piers  or  to  lay  stones  on  the  cellar  bottom  to 
support  the  timber  posts  that  reach  up  to  the  girders. 
Some  of  the  more  expensive  houses  are  treated  in  the 
same  way. 

Builders  are  not  particular  enough  to  provide  good 
solid  supports  under  the  middle  of  a  house.  Too  often 
they  do  not  realize  the  great  weight  that  such  sup- 
ports have  to  carry  year  after  year.  The  fact  is  a 
great  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  house  rests  on  the 
center  beams  and  posts,  which  are  supported  by  the 
center  piers.  The  wall  has  a  bearing  the  whole  length, 
but  a  pier  has  a  small  surface  in  comparison.  The 
footings  of  house  piers  are  all  out  of  proportion  to 
the  footings  of  the  walls. 

Sometimes  good  solid  foundation  piers  are  made, 
but  the  upright  wooden  posts  are  too  small  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  posts  will  sink  into  the  soft  wood 
girder  half  an  inch.  If  house  builders  appreciated  the 
strain  on  house  center  piers  and  upright  supports,  we 
would  see  them  much  larger  and  better  built. 

The  proper  way  to  build  a  center  pier  is  to  dig 


168  FARM  BUILDINGS 

down  at  least  eighteen  inches  below  the  cellar  floor. 
The  size,  of  course,  depends  on  the  size  and  weight  of 
the  house,  as  well  as  the  number  of  piers  built  in  to 
support  the  weight.  But  it  is  better  to  make  a  pier 
too  large  than  too  small.  No  pier  should  be  smaller 
than  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base  and 
eighteen  inches  deep  to  the  top  of  the  cellar  floor.  It 
is  better  to  build  a  pier  several  inches  above  the  floor, 
but  this  upper  part  may  be  smaller.  Sometimes  if  the 
pier  is  carried  up  the  full  size  a  foot  or  eighteen  inches 
above  the  floor,  the  space  around  the  posts  comes  in 
handy  as  a  ledge  or  shelf. 

When  the  excavation  for  a  pier  is  made  the  hole 
should  be  a  little  larger  at  the  bottom.  Usually  piers 
are  made  of  broken  stone  and  cement  mortar.  The 
cheapest  and  easiest  way  to  start  the  pier  is  to  put  in 
a  layer  of  larger  stones  five  or  six  inches  deep  and 
then  pour  in  very  thin  grout  mortar.  The  stones 
should  be  first  wet  with  water  so  the  grout  mortar 
will  adhere  readily. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  a  small  stick  like  a  lath  to 
churn  the  thin  mortar  around  the  stones  to  expel  air, 
and  to  effect  a  good  bond.  Above  this  foundation  the 
pier  is  built  in  the  usual  way.  Such  work  is  out  of 
sight  after  the  hole  is  filled  to  the  top,  so  that  the 
temptation  to  slight  the  piers  is  very  great,  especially 
on  contract  work,  for  all  contractors  are  drivers,  other- 
wise they  fail  to  make  fair  profits. 

In  making  specifications  it  is  well  to  have  all  such 
details  carefully  enumerated,  so  that  both  parties  know 
what  to  expect.  Then  the  owner  must  either  depend 
on  the  architect  to  see  that  the  specifications  are  car- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  169 

ried  out  properly  or  he  must  superintend  the  work 
himself. 

The  cheapest  house  construction  above  the  wall  is 
made  by  extending  the  studding  from  the  top  of  the 
wall  to  the  bottom  of  the  plate,  instead  of  framing 
false  work  to  fill  in  between  the  basement  wall  and 
the  joists  of  the  main  floor.  It  saves  material  and 
labor. 

The  framework  of  a  house  may  be  stiffened  mate- 
rially by  carefully  bridging  the  joists  at  proper  inter- 
vals between  the  partitions,  also  by  carefully  planning 
partitions  as  supports  to  the  upper  framework  and 
the  roof. 

In  building  a  house  with  an  attic  that  is  not  needed 
at  present,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  in  a  few  roof  sup- 
ports in  line  with  the  partitions  that  may  be  put  in 
later.  Usually  in  planning  attic  rooms  to  use  the 
floor  space  to  the  best  advantage,  the  partitions  natur- 
ally come  about  right  to  support  the  roof  at  the  weak- 
est places,  so  that  future  partition  studding  may  be 
put  in  place  at  the  time  of  building.  These  studs  are 
the  permanent  rafter  supports. 

Roofs  that  are  supported  by  partitions  may  be  con- 
structed of  two  by  four  rafters,  placed  twenty-four 
inches  on  centers,  fitted  and  spiked  into  place.  Collar 
beams  are  placed  in  regular  order  high  enough  for  an 
eight-foot  ceiling. 

It  is  better  to  floor  the  attic  at  the  time  of  building, 
although  it  may  be  used  only  for  storage.  The  floor 
is  worth  all  it  costs  to  keep  the  lower  rooms  comfort- 
able. An  attic  floor  carefully  laid  protects  the  lower 
rooms  against  heat  or  cold.  Also  a  floor  is  an  advan- 


170  FARM  BUILDINGS 

tage  in  putting  in  future  partition  studding  to  sup- 
port the  roof,  the  value  of  which  will  be  appreciated 
in  the  stability  of  the  house. 

Roofs  supported  in  this  way  cannot  settle.  When 
roofs  settle  the  rafters  push  the  plates  out  and  the 
house  is  weakened.  A  swayback  peak  or  broken 
backed  roof  is  the  result  and  it  is  difficult  to  remedy. 

PLANK  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION 

The  difficulty  of  securing  timber  for  buildings  was 
mother  to  the  invention  of  what  is  generally  termed 
"plank  frame  construction."  The  knowledge  that 
two-inch  planks  could  be  built  up  by  spiking  them  or 
bolting  them  together  to  make  any  size  and  strength 
of  timber  led  to  "experiments  in  truss  work  to  support 
the  different  parts  of  a  building  by  carrying  the 
strains  on  struts  and  ties. 

Builders  of  houses  are  not  worried  about  floor  loads, 
because  of  the  partitions  which  support  the  upper 
joists.  Cellar  girders  are  built  up  of  two  by  ten  or 
two  by  twelve  plank,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
house  and  the  weight  the  girder  is  intended  to  sus- 
tain. These  girders  are  supported  on  posts  or  pil- 
lars, and  the  posts  are  set  on  concrete  foundations. 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  weight  on  these  posts  and 
foundations  even  in  a  small  house. 

GRADE   CELLAR   ENTRANCE 

One  of  the  neatest  inventions  in  house  building  that 
has  ever  been  worked  out  is  a  grade  entrance  and  the 
combination  stair  leading  to  the  cellar  and  to  the 
kitchen.  These  grade  entrances  are  familiar  to  all 
builders,  but  they  are  not  always  appreciated  to  their 


FARM  BUILDINGS  171 

full  value  by  house  owners.  Not  every  house  plan 
lends  itself  conveniently  to  the  grade  entrance  propo- 
sition, but  certain  kinds  of  plans  are  incomplete  with- 
out it. 

When  properly  constructed  a  grade  entrance  to  a 
cellar  consists  of  a  doorway  with  the  sill  on  a  level 
with  the  walk  that  leads  to  the  back  of  the  house. 
There  is  an  inside  platform  three  or  four  feet  in 
width  and  there  are  six  or  seven  steps  to  go  down 
into  the  cellar.  The  entrance  to  the  kitchen  is  across 
the  same  platform  with  five  or  six  steps  to  go  up 
into  the  kitchen.  It  makes  a  very  convenient  way  of 
getting  into  the  cellar  with  supplies  or  to  remove 
ashes  from  the  furnace. 

Usually  the  laundry  is  in  the  cellar,  and  this  grade 
entrance  gives  easy  access  to  the  laundry  and  out  to 
the  clothes-line  on  wash  days. 

It  often  happens  that  a  grade  entrance  to  the 
kitchen  is  roomy  enough  to  hold  the  refrigerator,  so 
that  ice  may  be  put  in  without  entering  the  kitchen. 

SILLS 

House  sills  are  made  of  timber  or  by  spiking  to- 
gether planks  of  the  necessary  width.  It  depends  a 
good  deal  on  the  stock  in  the  local  lumber  yards. 
Generally  two-inch  planks  are  available,  but  the  order- 
ing of  timbers  sometimes  causes  delay. 

Planks  may  be  dodged  so  as  to  make  a  continuous 
sill  dove-tailed  at  the  corner,  which  saves  making  mor- 
tices and  tenons.  Sills  laid  on  top  of  a  concrete  wall 
need  not  be  very  large,  in  fact,  the  superstructure 
above  good  concrete  walls  is  well  supported  when  a 
single  wooden  strip  that  is  thick  enough  to  toe  nail 


172  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  bottom  of  the  studding  is  used.  Sometimes  wall 
sockets  are  set  into  the  fresh  concrete,  doing  away 
with  all  horizontal  sill  woodwork  and  the  studding 
is  stepped  into  the  wall  sockets  on  top  of  the  cement 
wall. 

BEADING  BUILDING  PLANS 

There  is  an  old  saying :  ' '  The  house  that  is  a  build- 
ing looks  not  as  the  house  that  is  built. ' '  This  means 
that  the  imagination  of  the  owner  is  not  sufficiently 
prophetic  to  build  in  his  or  her  mind  a  correct  picture 
of  the  coming  castle.  It  also  means  that  after  the 
house  is  started  that  the  surrounding  chaos  of  rub- 
bish and  lumber,  excavations  and  brick  bats  is  a  poor 
indication  of  future  beauty  and  comfort.  It  also  sug- 
gests that  house  plans  in  miniature  drawn  to  scale 
mean  little  more  than  a  headache  to  the  man 
or  woman  unaccustomed  to  reading  architectural 
drawings. 

A  young  married  couple  about  to  venture  upon  the 
interesting  and  important  task  of  building  themselves 
a  home  became  confused  studying  plans  of  the  dif- 
ferent floors  in  miniature.  One-quarter  inch  scale  was 
a  foreign  expression  to  them.  Skeleton  cross  sections 
were  like  toys  and  they  failed  to  comprehend  that  a 
partition  could  not  be  moved  without  interfering 
with  the  room  next  behind.  At  my  suggestion  they 
finally  ordered  two  loads  of  bricks  delivered  on  the 
building  site.  They  carried  the  bricks  and  made  rows 
of  them  on  the  ground,  thereby  making  full  size  plans 
of  the  house,  including  the  cellar  walls  and  the  out- 
side walls  and  inside  partitions  of  the  first  floor  and 
the  second  floor.  The  different  floors  were  laid  out  in 


FARM  BUILDINGS  173 

separate  plans  according  to  the  measurements  of  the 
different  rooms.  Openings  were  left  the  actual  width 
of  the  doors  and  pieces  of  board,  cut  to  represent  the 
exact  width  of  the  different  windows,  were  laid  on  the 
brick  walls  where  the  windows  were  to  be  placed  in 
the  building.  They  could  then  walk  around  through 
the  rooms  and  doorways  the  same  as  after  the  house  is 
built.  And  they  could  stand  before  each  window  and 
look  out  at  the  view.  After  making  a  few  trips  to 
these  full  size  plans  they  suggested  a  few  minor 
changes  and  the  result  was  a  house  they  have  felt 
satisfied  with  ever  since. 

A  SIX-ROOM  FARM  HOUSE 

Economy  of  cubic  space  and  the  careful  arrange- 
ment  of  rooms  for  convenience  and  comfort  is  the 
object  of  presenting  the  plan  shown  in  Figures  105, 
106,  107  and  108.  It  is  a  small  story-and-a-half  house 
twenty-five  feet  six  inches  by  thirty  feet  in  size, 
exclusive  of  front  porch. 

The  cellar  is  eight  feet  longer -than  the  house  proper 
to  include  the  wall  under  the  front  veranda.  There 
is  a  cross  cellar  wall  under  the  front  house  wall  tp 
support  the  weight  and  to  make  a  cold  cellar  under 
the  veranda  for  the  storage  of  apples  and  vegetables 

The  inside  of  the  concrete  cellar  wall  is  treated  with 
a  coating  of  cement  mortar  to  make  it  waterproof. 
The  mortar  for  this  purpose  is  made  rich  with  cement 
and  thin  by  adding  water  until  it  is  almost  sloppy. 

A  mixture  of  one  part  cement  to  two  parts  sharp 
sand  works  well.  It  is  put  on  with  a  trowel  imme- 
diately after  removing  the  inside  forms,  while  the  wall 
is  still  damp,  so  that  the  mortar  will  stick  well  and 


174 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


175 


run  in  to  fill  all  the  openings  whether  they  are  little 
or  big. 


Figure  106 — First  Floor  Plan 

Pressing  thin  cement  mortar  with  a  trowel  expels 
the  air  and  closes  all  the  voids  and  makes  it  water- 
proof and  dampproof. 

Mixing  hydrated  lime  into  cement  mortar  helps  to 


176 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


make  it  waterproof  but  the  quality  of  the  mortar  is 
not  quite  so  good.    Hydrated  lime  is  burned  lime  that 
has  been  slaked  and  allowed  to  absorb  a  certain  amount 
Of  moisture. 
Floors  and  Siding. — There  is  only  one  way  to  build 


Figure  107. — Second  Floor  Plan 

a  frame  house  in  any  climate  and  that  is  to  build  it 
so  as  to  shed  the  weather.  A  house  built  so  that  it  will 
keep  out  the  cold  in  winter  will  keep  the  heat  out  in 
summer. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


177 


Use  seven-eighths  inch  lumber,  dressed  one  side  for 
boarding,  all  over  the  house,  to  cover  the  outside  stud- 
ding, floor  joists  and  rafters.  The  roof  boards  are 
better  if  matched.  Wide  widths  nail  on  faster  and 
make  a  stiffer  outer  wall,  floor,  or  roof.  Put  the  floor 
and  studding  sheathing  on  diagonally.  A  forty-five 


Figure  108. — Detail  Showing  Side  Wall,  Eave  Projection  and 
Roof 

degree  angle  cuts  so  that  the  boards  may  be  turned 
over  to  fit  to  make  the  joints  come  right. 

Cover  this  rough  boarding  with  the  best  quality  of 
hard  building  paper,  carefully  worked  around  all  of 
the  door  and  window  frames,  then  put  on  the  clap 
boards.  The  best  grade  of  building  paper  is  a  good 
thing  to  put  on  the  roof  boards  under  the  shingles, 


178  FARM  BUILDINGS 

and  it  works  well  between  the  rough  floor  and  the 
thin  matched  flooring  of  hard  wood. 

The  plan  of  this  house  has  been  worked  out  very 
carefully  to  make  good  use  of  all  the  floor  space.  This 
plan  provides  a  grade  entrance  with  a  combination 
stairway  which  reaches  down  five  steps  into  the  cellar 
and  up  six  steps  into  the  kitchen.  There  is  a  square 
platform  inside  the  cellar  door  to  start  from.  The 
cellar  stair  is  under  the  front  stair  that  steps  up  from 
the  front  hall.  It  makes  a  combination  that  takes  up 
very  little  room  in  proportion  to  its  usefulness. 

The  chimney  is  in  the  center  of  the  house.  It  has 
a  good  foundation  below  the  cellar  bottom  to  prevent 
it  from  settling.  It  has  two  flues,  one  for  the  warm 
air  furnace  and  one  for  the  kitchen  range,  both  flues 
are  reached  by  short  smoke  pipes. 

There  are  three  rooms  besides  front  hall  and  pantry 
on  the  first  floor.  The  rooms  are  well  arranged  and 
large  enough  for  comfort  and  they  are  all  well  lighted. 

There  are  large  windows  and  plenty  of  them.  Even 
the  cellar  is  well  lighted  with  two  light  windows,  in 
single  sash,  hinged  at  the  top  and  arranged  to  hook 
up  against  the  floor  joists  for  ventilation. 

Upstairs  there  are  three  bed  rooms  and  a  bath  room 
with  plenty  of  closets  for  storage  of  household  things 
not  in  use  at  all  times.  The  front  and  back  bed  rooms 
are  large  and  are  well  lighted  by  double  windows  built 
into  double  frames  in  the  large  gables.  The  side  bed 
room  and  the  bath  room  are  lighted  by  single  two-sash 
windows  in  smaller  gables.  A  short  hallway  connects 
the  stairway  with  all  the  upper  rooms.  There  is  just 
enough  hall  wall  space  to  hold  the  doors  and  to  make 
room  for  the  stairway  and  the  chimney. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


179 


180  FARM  BUILDINGS 

A  FIVE-ROOM  HOUSE 

Small  houses  containing  five  rooms  meet  the  require- 
ments of  a  great  many  families.  The  design  illus- 
trated in  Figures  109,  110,  111  and  112  shows  a  style 
of  house  ordinarily  described  as  a  story  and  a  half. 
It  is  thirty  by  thirty-two  feet,  in  size,  and  contains  a 
splendid  large  living  room  and  a  good  kitchen  on  the 
first  floor  and  three  bed  rooms  and  a  bath  room  on 
the  second  floor  together  with  the  necessary  clothes 
closets. 


LA  WOT  |    PAIQTRM 

K'-O'x  I6-O*  •       I  C5't3x  1 6HD" 


-PASLMOIT'RLAN- 

Figure  110 

The  basement  is  enclosed  with  solid  concrete  walls 
based  on  wide  footings  to  prevent  settling.  The  walls 
extent  up  to  the  main  house  floor,  giving  a  height  of 
basement  ceiling  a  little  higher  than  seven  and  one- 
half  feet. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


181 


The  basement  is  well  lighted  by  four  double  win- 
dows and  three  single  windows.  The  windows  of  the 
workroom  side  of  the  house  are  deeper  than  the  win- 
dows in  the  front.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  con- 
siderable work  is  done  in  a  good  farm  house  basement 
like  this  so  that  plenty  of  light  and  air  are  necessary 
to  make  the  workroom  comfortable. 


Figure  111 

The  forms  for  the  concrete  walls  are  made  out  of 
joists  and  cheap  lumber  that  is  afterwards  used  in  the 
upper  structure  of  the  house.  The  outside  boarding 
and  the  floor  linings  work  in  just  right  for  forms  for 
the  concrete  wall.  The  only  loss  in  using  lumber 
joists  and  studding  for  the  basement  forms  is  in  the 
splitting  of  the  boards  when  trying  to  get  the  nails 


Ig2  FARM  BUILDINGS 

out.  This  difficulty  is  overcome  by  using  six  penny 
nails,  which  pull  easily.  The  boarding  for  the*  forms 
is  tacked  to  the  uprights  on  the  inside,  so  that  the 
pressure  comes  against  the  uprights  and  no  nail 
strength  is  required  except  to  hold  the  forms  together 
until  the  concrete  is  filled  in. 

In  making  and  placing  forms  have  them  level  and 
true  on  top  so  that  when  the  forms  are  filled  full  and 


f LGDQ  -PLAIN  ~ 

Fi&ure  112 

struck  off  true  with  the  top  then  the  foundation  for 
the  sills  is  level  and  true,  straight  and  square,  so  that 
the  sills  may  go  on  the  concrete  and  the  superstructure 
be  carried  up  square  and  plumb  without  chinking  up 
under  the  sills,  or  any  other  adjustment  that  takes 
time  and  looks  bad  after  the  house  is  finished. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  183 

Have  the  sills  and  the  window  frames  made  the  full 
thickness  of  the  wall  so  that  they  fit  in  between  the 
outside  and  inside  wall  forms,  and  the  concrete  may 
be  filled  around  to  make  a  tight  joint  quickly. 

If  an  eight-inch  wall  is  wanted  then  the  basement 
window  frames  are  made  eight  inches  wide  from  one 
face  to  the  other.  They  are  lightly  tacked  to  the 
boarding  of  the  forms  so  that  the  boards  will  pull 
away  without  loosening  the  frames.  The  frames 
should  be  worked  around  with  two  stops  so  that  the 
wet  concrete  will  run  in  between  the  stops  to  hold 
the  frame  firmly  in  place  and  to  prevent  currents  of 
air  from  passing  through  between  the  frame  and  con- 
crete wall  openings.  The  basement  requires  ventila- 
tion, but  not  through  cracks  that  are  accidentally  made 
at  the  time  of  construction. 

An  interesting  feature  of  this  house  is  the  grade 
entrance  and  the  way  in  which  the  stairway  is  built. 
The  doorway  at  the  side  of  the  house  is  built  in  the 
concrete  wall  at  the  level  of  the  ground  so  that  the 
door  sill  and  cement  walk  come  on  a  level  with  each 
other. 

Inside  the  house  at  the  grade  entrance  is  a  platform 
about  four  feet  square.  The  stair  leads  down  into  the 
basement  from  this  platform  and  also  from  this  plat- 
form other  steps  lead  up  into  the  kitchen.  There  are 
six  steps  down  and  seven  steps  up  so  that  the  entrance 
is  easy  both  to  the  basement  and  to  the  kitchen. 

The  same  stairway  reaches  from  the  basement  floor 
to  the  upper  story,  so  that  in  the  building  of  one 
stairway  over  the  other  little  room  is  taken  up  when 
the  amount  of  stairway  is  considered.  The  stairway 


184  FARM  BUILDINGS 

is  lighted  by  a  window  placed  on  a  level  with  the 
upper  floor. 

The  main  floor  of  the  house  is  planned  for  simple 
elegance.  The  large  living  room  fourteen  by  thirty 
feet  is  unusual  in  a  house  of  this  size.  The  fashion 
for  large  rooms  has  probably  come  to  stay.  It  is  much 
easier  to  furnish  a  large  room  than  several  small  ones 
and  the  large  rooms  are  much  more  comfortable.  They 
are  light  and  airy  and  there  are  corners  to  fit  all  kinds 
of  weather.  A  large  fireplace,  like  the  one  shown, 
helps  greatly  in  furnishing  a  room  of  this  kind.  It 
is  also  very  pleasant  during  cool  evenings,  when  a 
little  fire  is  comfortable,  and  it  furnishes  ventilation 
at  all  times.  The  ventilation  through  a  chimney  is 
much  more  rapid  when  the  fire  is  burning,  but  a  good 
flue  will  carry  off  the  foul  air  from  a  room  in  a  steady 
stream  all  day  and  all  night.  A  fireplace  is  worth  all 
it  costs  for  ventilation  alone.  It  is  also  an  economy 
in  the  spring  and  fall  when  the  days  are  warm  and 
the  nights  are  cool  and  a  little  open  fire  makes  the 
house  comfortable  and  saves  firing  up  the  large  heat- 
ing apparatus. 

The  further  end  of  this  room  is  intended  for  a  din- 
ing room  and  also  for  a  parlor  and  sitting  room. 
When  not  in  use  the  dining  table  is  pushed  into  the 
corner  and  the  chairs  used  for  other  purposes.  When 
you  come  to  think  about  it,  there  is  little  furniture  in 
the  ordinary  dining  room.  The  dining  table  and  half 
a  dozen  chairs  are  all  that  are  necessary  for  a  small 
family,  and  in  many  houses  the  dining  room  is  shut 
tip  twenty-two  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four,  simply 
to  accommodate  seven  pieces  of  furniture,  most  of 
which  are  quite  small. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  185 

There  is  just  one  suggestion  for  an  improvement  in 
this  plan,  and  that  is  to  build  a  back  porch  big  enough 
and  to  hold  the  pantry. 

A  kitchen  eight  by  sixteen  feet  makes  a  comfortable 
cozy  little  room  to  work  in,  but  it  is  rather  small  for 
a  farm  house  during  the  busy  season.  There  is  a  con- 
stant controversy  in  regard  to  kitchens ;  whether  they 
should  be  large  or  small.  A  large  kitchen  requires  a 
great  deal  of  traveling  back  and  forth  while  the  small 
kitchen  has  everything  within  reach. 

In  this  plan,  as  it  stands,  there  are  two  cupboards 
to  hold  all  sorts  of  kitchen  utensils.  One  of  the  cup- 
boards is  especially  designed  to  hold  the  ironing 
board,  vacuum  cleaner,  brooms,  mop  sticks,  with  a 
hook  on  the  wall  for  the  dust  pan.  In  addition  to 
the  convenience  for  the  tools  mentioned  this  little 
cupboard  has  a  trap  door  in  the  floor  to  let  the  soiled 
linen  down  into  the  laundry  where  it  accumulates  in 
a  big  clothes  basket  for  wash  day.  Formerly  such 
laundry  shutes  were  built  of  wood,  but  a  better  prac- 
tice is  to  leave  a  hole  through  the  floor  and  have  iron 
hooks  to  hold  the  big  laundry  basket  underneath.  A 
laundry  shute,  after  months  of  use,  becomes  odorous 
so  that  when  the  trap  door  is  opened  the  odor  comes 
up  into  the  rooms  above.  But  there  is  no  objection 
to  a  trap  door  in  a  cupboard  like  this  with  a  basket 
suspended  underneath. 

The  upper  story  in  this  house  is  divided  into  three 
bed  rooms  and  a  bath  room.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
every  square  foot  of  space  is  occupied,  except  the 
extreme  corners  where  the  roof  comes  down  too  low 
to  give  sufficient  head  room.  There  are  three  clothes 


186  FARM  BUILDINGS 

closets  besides  a  small  linen  closet,  opening  off  from 
the  bath  room. 

Little  room  is  taken  up  in  the  hallway.  There  is 
just  about  wall  space  enough  to  hold  the  different 
doors  and  leave  an  opening  for  the  stairway.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  design  an  upstairs  in  a  house 
of  this  size  on  any  other  plan  that  would  give  so 
much  room  and  comfort. 

AN    ATTRACTIVE    COUNTRY    HOME 

Beautiful  country  homes  naturally  belong  to  some 
farms  because  the  owners  want  beautiful  homes. 
There  really  is  not  much  difference  in  the  cost.  It  is 
principally  in  management.  Beautiful  homes  are  not 
necessarily  large  nor  expensive. 

The  house  illustrated  in  Figures  113,  114,  115  and 
116  is  thirty-four  by  thirty  feet  in  size.  It  presents 
an  attractive  appearance  because  of  its  well  balanced 
proportions. 

The  basement  is  enclosed  by  a  well  made  concrete 
wall  eight  feet  high  including  the  footings. 

The  basement  contains  a  laundry,  a  furnace  room 
with  coal  bin,  a  splendidly  lighted  dairy  room  seven- 
teen by  eighteen  feet  and  a  wash  room  for  the  men. 

There  is  a  grade  entrance  at  the  side  of  the  house 
and  there  is  a  combination  stairway  which  leads  down 
to  the  cellar  and  up  to  the  kitchen.  The  short  stair 
leading  down  to  the  cellar  is  built  under  the  front 
stair,  which  gives  the  necessary  headroom  and  saves 
space. 

The  living  room  is  twenty-eight  by  thirteen  feet. 
It  is  well  lighted  with  three  side  windows  and  two 
windows  at  the  end. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


187 


188  FARM  BUILDINGS 

In  furnishing  such  a  grand  big  room  a  davenport 
of  the  largest  size  is  needed  to  place  in  the  middle  of 
the  room  facing  the  open  fire.  An  overtufted  daven- 
port, four  feet  wide  and  about  nine  feet  long  so  placed, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  the  open  fire,  suggests  solid 
comfort. 


Figure  114. — Basement  Plan 

Besides  the  big  davenport  such  a  room  requires  sev- 
eral wide  heavy  armed  chairs  placed  sociably  in  pairs 
or  trios  in  the  corners  before  the  windows  and  along 
the  wall  spaces. 

The  dining  room  is  twelve  by  sixteen  feet  with  a 
window  extension  to  hold  a  heavy  but  plain,  factory- 
made,  built  in  sideboard  and  double  china  cabinet. 
The  sideboard  is  built  across  the  window  at  the  height 
of  the  window  sill.  The  rounded  glass  fronts  of  the 
china  closets  commence  at  the  top  of  the  sideboard  and 
extend  up  as  high  as  a  woman  can  reach  to  place  the 
ornaments  to  show  to  advantage  on  top. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  189 

The  window  casing  and  wood  work  of  the  china 
cabinets  and  sideboard  is  all  built  together  and  the 
wood  work  corresponds  with  the  finish  of  the-  room. 
In  fact,  the  cornice  of  the  china  cabinets  merges  into 
the  plate  rail  that  is  carried  all  the  way  around  the 
room.  The  base  board  and  crown  moulding  at  the 
ceiling  are  made  to  correspond.  The  wood  work  in 
the  living  room  and  the  dining  room  corresponds  in 
every  way  except  the  plate  rail. 


Figure  115. — First  Floor  Plan 

All  of  the  wood  work  is  made  plain  and  rather 
heavy.  Simple  elegance  rather  than  fancy  machine 
work  is  the  keynote  in  modern  house  wood  work. 
Straight  lines,  smooth  satiny  finish  and  soft  tones  are 
evidences  of  good  taste  in  the  finish  in  living  rooms 
and  dining  rooms. 


190 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


The  kitchen  in  this  house  was  designed  especially 
for  farm  conditions  where  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
meals  for  extra  farm  helpers  during  haying  and  har- 
vest and  at  other  busy  seasons. 

In  the  first  place  there  are  two  entrances  to  the 
basement,  and  there  is  a  wash  room  down  there  for 
the  men,  and  lockers  where  they  may  keep  their  work- 
ing clothes.  On  fine  days  they  will  use  the  outside 
entrances  to  the  kitchen  and  dairy  room.  In  stormy 


Figure  116. — Chamber  and  Roof  Plan 

weather  they  will  use  the  inside  cellar  steps  when 
going  from  the  wash  room  to  the  kitchen  for  meals. 

At  such  times  the  kitchen  is  intended  for  both 
kitchen  and  dining  room.  For  this  reason  the  range 
and  sink  are  placed  in  one  end  of  the  room  and  a 
small  dining  table  occupies  a  place  near  the  outside 
door.  This  arrangement  leaves  the  line  of  travel  free 


FARM  BUILDINGS  191 

between  the  pantry,  the  stove,  the  sink,  the  store  room 
and  the  cellar  stairway. 

The  kitchen  wood  work  is  basswood  finished  in 
white  enamel  with  plain  white  walls  and  ceiling.  The 
floor  is  white  maple,  unvarnished.  The  white  finish 
together  with  the  light  from  five  windows  makes  a  very 
bright  pleasant  work  room.  The  usual  kitchen  porch 
or  veranda  is  left  out  of  the  plan  to  have  the  windows 
all  free  from  obstruction  for  both  light  and  air. 

A  back  veranda  is  not  really  necessary  in  this  plan 
because  of  the  two  outside  cellar  and  kitchen  entrances. 
Double  storm  doors  in  winter  may  be  hung  in  place  of 
the  summer  screen  doors.  The  outside  dairy  entrance 
steps  may  be  covered  with  a  double  door  placed  on  an 
incline  as  a  protection  against  storms. 

The  upstairs  of  this  house  is  divided  into  three  bed 
rooms  and  a  bath  room  with  plenty  of  closet  room. 
The  stairway  is  wide  and  well  lighted  by  a  large  win- 
dow that  sheds  light  clear  across  the  hall  on  the  upper 
floor. 

All  plumbing  pipes  are  confined  to  one  corner  of 
the  house  which  makes  for  economy  because  the  pipes 
are  shorter.  Commencing  at  the  sewer  in  the  laundry, 
the  water  supply  pipes  and  the  waste  pipes  are  all 
bunched  into  one  system  and  are  exposed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  be  easy  of  access  in  case  repairs  are  needed. 

ONE-STORY   FARM    HOUSE 

In  the  house  plan  shown  in  Figures  117,  118  and 
119  the  cellar  walls  divide  the  basement  into  rooms  to 
correspond  with  the  rooms  on  the  main  floor  so  that 
the  main  outside  walls  and  the  principal  inside  par- 
titions extend  from  the  basement  to  the  roof. 


192 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


193 


The  basement  is  divided  into  three  large  rooms, — 
laundry,  vegetable  cellar,  and  furnace  room.  There 
also  is  a  good  wash  room  for  the  men. 

Storage  is  provided  both  in  the  vegetable  cellar  and 
in  the  boiler  room.  Vegetables  and  fruit  are  kept  cold 


Figure  118. — Basement  Plan 

but  the  boiler  room  is  warm  enough  in  winter  to  be 
used  for  a  farm  shop.  It  is  also  large  enough  to  fur- 
nish considerable  room  for  the  storage  of  such  things 
as  the  best  harness,  saddles  and  extra  horse  trappings, 
binding  twine,  grain  sacks,  rope,  hay  slings,  paints 
and  oils  and  varnishes  and  many  other  things  needed 
on  a  farm. 

A  farm  cellar  is  made  much  more  comfortable  and 
sightly  by  pointing  the  walls  on  the  inside  and  keep- 
ing them  coated  with  whitewash.  Also  the  ceiling 
should  be  lathed  and  plastered  and  kept  white  and 


194 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


clean.     Finishing  the  basement  ceiling  also  makes  the 
upper  rooms  more  comfortable. 

In  this  house  the  basement  and  the  kitchen  are  con- 
nected by  two  stairways,  one  outside  and  one  inside. 
An  outside  entrance  is  convenient  and  necessary  when 


Figure  119. — Floor  Plan 

the  basement  is  built  for  business  as  it  should  be.  It 
is  easy  to  provide  a  straight,  wide  concrete  stairway 
into  this  basement  and  have  it  protected  from  the 
weather  by  building  a  shed  instead  of  the  usual  back 
porch.  The  shed  floor  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground 
outside  so  that  about  six  or  eight  steps  will  reach 
down  into  the  basement  and  about  four  or  six  steps 
will  reach  up  to  the  level  of  the  kitchen  floor. 

The  kitchen  is  twelve  by  thirteen  feet  in  size  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS  195 

there  are  two  storage  closets  and  a  dumb  waiter  besides 
a  good  pantry,  which  is  built  in  between  the  kitchen 
and  dining  room. 

The  dumb  waiter  saves  many  steps  between  the 
kitchen  and  the  cellar.  It  is  built  with  shelves  to 
hold  butter,  lard,  milk,  bread,  salt,  pepper,  left  over 
cooking  from  the  previous  meal  and  many  other  small 
things  needed  instantly  when  a  woman  is  busy  work- 
ing over  the  range  getting  meals. 

The  cage  of  the  dumb  waiter  is  built  two  feet  square 
and  six  feet  high.  It  is  hung  by  a  rope  that  runs  over 
a  pulley  above  and  is  counter  poised  by  a  weight  so 
that  it  moves  easily  up  and  down. 

There  is  a  square  hole  through  the  floor  half  an 
inch  larger  each  way  than  the  cage.  There  is  a  pro- 
jecting top  to  the  cage  which  rests  on  the  floor  when 
the  cage  is  down  to  prevent  cold  air  from  the  fruit 
cellar  escaping  into  the  pantry  or  kitchen. 

The  plumbing  in  this  house  is  confined  to  a  small 
space  so  that  the  supply  pipes  and  waste  pipes  may 
be  all  short.  It  is  but  a  few  feet  from  the  bath  room 
and  kitchen  sink  to  the  laundry  tubs  and  the  men's 
•wash  room  in  the  basement.  There  is  economy  in 
bunching  the  plumbing  pipes  all  close  together  and 
so  placing  the  bunch  that  it  may  be  easily  protected 
from  frost. 

A  fine  big  living  room  extends  through  the  house 
from  front  to  back.  This  room  is  lighted  by  windows 
at  both  ends  and  it  is  brightened  by  a  splendid  fire- 
place that  is  decorated  'with  a  tiled  hearth  and  a  heavy 
wooden  mantle. 

The  two  bed  rooms  are  ten  by  ten  feet  each  with 


196  FARM  BUILDINGS 

good  clothes  closets  between.  There  is  wall  space  in 
each  bed  room  to  turn  the  beds  two  ways.  Two  bed 
rooms  would  not  be  sufficient  on  a  farm,  but  there  is 
a  big  attic  in  this  house  with  two  gables  and  these  may 
be  made  useful  when  extra  help  is  needed. 

The  stairway  leading  up  from  the  dining  room  is, 
in  this  plan,  closed  by  a  door  at  the  bottom.  If,  in 
after  years,  it  should  become  necessary  to  raise  the 
roof  and  make  the  attic  into  sleeping  rooms,  then  the 
front  entrance  should  be  changed  and  a  small  vesti- 
bule taken  from  that  side  of  the  dining  room.  Part 
of  the  present  pantry  would  then  be  worked  into  the 
dining  room  and  the  kitchen  would  be  enlarged  by 
moving  the  bath  room  upstairs.  Few  houses  lend 
themselves  so  well  to  expansion  ideas. 

A  study  of  the  plan  will  show  that  the  floor  space 
is  all  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  All  the  rooms  are 
well  lighted  by  large  windows  rightly  placed.  Doors 
are  made  to  open  back  against  solid  walls  whenever 
possible.  The  chimney  is  large  and  is  built  in  the 
center  of  the  house.  Windows  are  made  large  and 
in  multiple  where  much  light  is  needed. 

This  house  should  front  towards  the  north,  if  pos- 
sible, for  several  reasons.  The  large  living  room  is 
much  more  pleasant  when  light  and  sunshine  come  in 
freely  through  the  two  duplicate  windows.  Both  bed 
rooms  would  then  look  to  the  east  to  catch  the  early 
morning  sun.  The  back  entrance  to  the  kitchen  and 
cellar  is  protected  from  strong  west  winds  by  the  shed. 
The  west  kitchen  windows  may  be  opened  to  the 
cooling  west  breezes  when  weather  conditions  are 
favorable. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  197 

BUSINESS  FARM  HOUSE 

The  modern  tendency  is  to  make  farm  houses  small, 
compact  and  convenient  rather  than  large  and  impos- 
ing. There  are  no  old  fashioned  parlors  in  modern 
houses,  furnished  too  nice  for  use.  Instead,  there  is 
one  big  living  room  designed  and  upholstered  for 
everyday  comfort. 

Small  bed  rooms  with  proper  ventilation  are  more 
healthful  than  big  rooms  that  have  to  be  closed  tight 
in  winter  to  keep  from  freezing. 

A  good  bath  room  with  hot  and  cold  water  on  tap 
costs  less  than  the  fancy  roof  ornaments  on  some 
houses. 

Instead  of  low-headed,  dark,  dingy  cellars,  modern 
farm  houses  have  well  lighted  basements  divided  into 
rooms  designed  for  special  purposes. 

Stairways  are  built  to  save  labor.  They  are  the 
product  of  evolution,  the  study  of  which  takes  the 
reader  through  volumes  of  development  that  is  fully 
as  interesting  and  important  as  the  growth  of  any 
other  modern  invention. 

Hard  wood  floors  have  taken  the  place  of  carpets 
because  they  are  more  sanitary,  easy  to  clean  and  are 
more  attractive  in  appearance. 

Builders  of  new  farm  houses  have  returned  to  pio- 
neer simplicity  in  the  enjoyment  of  an  open  fireplace 
during  the  evenings  of  fall  and  the  chilly  periods  in 
spring.  But  they  have  extended  the  mild  fireplace 
weather  inside  of  the  house  to  include  the  long  winter 
evenings.  They  have  done  this  by  the  aid  of  the 
modern  warm  air  furnace  installed  in  one  room  in  the 
basement. 


196 


I  ARM  BUILDINGS 


•-— il!^K~£.. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


199 


Farm  kitchens  in  the  'newer  houses  are  smaller  and 
more  convenient.  If  the  modern  kitchen  be  made 
large,  a  dining  table  can  be  placed  in  one  corner  or 
along  one  side.  Such  kitchens  have  several  windows 


Figure  121. — Basement  Plan 

for  light  and  ventilation.  The  room  is  carefully 
planned  to  save  labor  by  bunching  the  necessary 
working  utensils  all  within  arm's  reach  as  nearly  as 
possible.  Modern  kitchens  are  planned  and  built  with 
the  same  care  as  the  front  hall  or  living  room.  The 
kitchen  is  recognized  as  being  the  most  important 


200 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


room  in  the  house  and  often  is  shown  to  visitors  with 
as  much  pride  as  any  other  feature  of  the  new  home. 

The  house,  shown  in  Figures  120,  121,  122  and  123, 
is  small,  only  twenty-eight  feet  square  on  the  ground, 


Figure  122. — First  Floor 

and  the  roof  is  low  towards  the  eaves,  but  it  contains 
three  rooms  on  each  floor  and  more  in  the  basement. 
They  are  good  sized  rooms.  The  secret  is  in  making 
good  use  of  the  attic  and  in  the  way  the  rooms  are 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


201 


huddled  close  together.  There  is  little  space  devoted 
to  hallways  or  stairways  and  the  two  dormer  windows 
help.  One  chimney  is  cheaper  than  two  and  better 
when  it  is  built  where  this  one  is,  in  the  middle  of  the 


Figure  123. — Second  Floor 

house.    The  upper  hall  is  not  dark.    It  is  lighted  by 
a  large  window  in  the  open  stairway. 

The  working  parts  of  this  house  deserve  close  atten- 
tion. The  kitchen  is  connected  with  the  basement  by 
two  stairways.  Going  upstairs  or  down  into  the  laun- 
dry from  the  kitchen  is  made  as  easy  as  possible.  The 
inside  stairway  to  the  basement  is  for  the  women,  the 
outside  stairway  is  for  the  men.  Both  stairways  are 
made  roomy  with  easy  steps.  The  outside  steps  to  the 
cellar  are  made  of  solid  concrete  ten-inch  tread  with 


202  FARM  BUILDINGS 

seven-inch  risers  and  are  four  feet  in  width.  The  out- 
side steps  leading  up  to  the  kitchen  are  made  in  the 
same  way.  The  balance  of  the  shed  is  covered  with  a 
concrete  floor  on  a  level  with  the  concrete  walk  out- 
side and  there  is  no  door  sill  to  make  an  obstruction. 

SQUARE  FARM   HOUSE 

Theoretically,  a  square  house  is  the  cheapest  to  build 
and  the  cheapest  to  live  in.  Practically,  it  depends 
upon  how  it  is  planned  and  constructed  whether  it  is 
either  cheaper  or  better. 

A  full  two-story  house  of  small  dimensions  blocks 
off  into  square  sensible  rooms  to  advantage,  and  the 
upper  rooms  are  warmed  by  some  of  the  heat  that 
would  otherwise  go  to  waste. 

To  take  advantage  of  the  mechanical  principles  of 
house  construction  and  the  thermic  principles  of  house 
heating  in  this  type  of  house  the  building  must  be 
small,  not  larger  than  thirty-six  feet  square.  The  plan 
shown  in  Figures  124,  125,  126  and  127,  is  only  thirty 
by  thirty-two  feet  on  the  ground,  so  it  comes  well 
within  the  specified  economic  bounds.  Eighteen-foot 
studding  are  needed  to  allow  for  the  joists  and  floors 
and  then  an  eight-foot  ceiling  upstairs. 

A  square  built  house  calls  for  a  hip  roof.  The  roof 
looks  better  and  is  cheaper  if  the  pitch  is  low,  say  one- 
quarter  or  one-third  pitch.  The  same  pitch  and  hip 
design  should  cover  the  verandas  and  porches.  A  low 
pitch  requires  a  rather  wide  projection,  say  three  feet 
on  a  house  of  this  size  and  height.  No  house  looks  well 
with  a  stingy  eave  projection.  A  heavy  looking  box 
cornice  gives  the  house  a  solid  appearance. 

The  basement  of  this  house  is  planned  and  con- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


204 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


structed  in  true  farm  house  style  to  meet  farm 
requirements.  It  contains  a  cold  storage  room  for 
fruits  and  vegetables.  The  furnace  room  is  parti- 
tioned away  from  the  other  basement  divisions  to 
confine  the  heat  and  dust  to  one  section.  This  fur- 
nace room  is  easily  reached  by  stairway  vfrom  the 
kitchen  or  from  the  back  cellar  entrance  through  the 
laundry. 


Figure  125. — Basement  Plan 

The  laundry  has  all  of  the  big  and  little  inventions 
that  help  to  whitewash  all  of  the  "blue  Mondays"  and 
to  make  wash  day  pleasant  and  agreeable.  Opening 
off  from  the  laundry  is  a  wash  room  for  the  men, 
which  includes  a  shower  bath.  There  is  a  depression 
in  the  concrete  floor  with  a  drain  strainer  which  con- 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


205 


nects  with  the  house  sewer  system.  A  small  water 
pipe  with  pin  holes  in  it  is  bent  in  the  form  of  a 
circle.  Hot  and  cold  water  pipes  are  connected  with 
the  circle  pipe  by  a  double  globe  valve  arrangement 
which  regulates  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Five 
dollars  will  buy  the  materials  to  make  a  shower  bath 


Figure  126. — First  Floor  Plan 

and  a  handy  tinker  can  easily  put  them  together. 
Such  a  small  room  may  be  heated  by  a  coal  oil  stove 
to  make  it  warm  enough  in  winter. 

Another  comfortable  arrangement  for  the  men  is 
the  porch  dining  room  at  the  rear  of  the  kitchen. 
From  the  wash  room  the  men  go  up  the  outside  steps 
to  the  porch  dining  room  through  the  end  of  the 


206 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


kitchen  not  used  by  the  cook.  If  this  little  dining 
porch  is  used  in  winter  the  coal  oil  heater  is  brought 
up  from  the  basement  bath  room  at  meal  time.  In 
summer  the  windows  are  left  open. 

The  business  end  of  the  kitchen  contains  all  of  the 
working  essentials  within  a  small  space.     The  range 


Figure  127. — Second  Floor  Plan 

stands  between  the  large  kitchen  cupboard  and  the 
sink  and  stairway  to  the  cellar. 

Upstairs,  in  the  men's  quarters,  there  is  wall  space 
for  two  single  beds  in  the  one  bed  room  and  there  is 
room  for  two  cots  in  the  sleeping  porch.  The  family 
is  provided  for  by  the  three  front  bed  rooms. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  207 

STORY  AND  A-HALF  FARM  HOUSE 

Instead  of  waiting  to  accumulate  money  enough  to 
build  a  big  imposing  house,  farmers  are  now  studying 
how  to  build  small  comfortable  homes.  The  new  idea 
is  to  gather  together  in  a  small  space  enough  of  the 
so-called  modern  conveniences  to  supply  each  member 
of  the  family  with  warmth,  light,  fresh  air  and  the 
facilities  for  keeping  themselves  clean. 

Modern  inventions  were  slow  to  penetrate  into  the 
interior  of  farm  homes,  principally  because  such  im- 
provements depend  upon  plumbing  and  so  long  as 
lead  pipes  and  joint  wiping  were  necessary  the  expense 
seemed  prohibitive.  In  recent  years,  however,  stand- 
ard sizes  and  duplicate  parts  of  plumbing  materials 
and  fittings  have  been  adopted  by  the  different  manu- 
facturers and  are  being  made  in  great  quantities  by 
machinery.  The  result  is  that  plumbing  is  better  done 
at  one-quarter  of  the  former  cost. 

A  very  respectable  looking  and  serviceable  bath 
room  equipment  may  now  be  had  for  thirty  dollars 
or  less,  which  price  includes  all  of  the  attachments 
necessary  to  connect  with  the  supply  pipes,  waste 
pipes  and  atmospheric  ventilators.  An  ordinary  mech- 
anic can  fit  the  different  pieces  in  place  and  make 
nearly  all  of  the  connections  with  a  combination  pipe 
and  monkey  wrench.  The  job  is  neither  difficult  nor 
of  long  duration.  The  same  may  be  said  of  kitchen 
and  laundry  plumbing  and  of  the  whole  water  supply 
system. 

Wooden  houses  are  more  common  on  the  farm  than 
houses  of  any  other  material.  This  is  because  lumber 
for  wooden  houses  may  be  had  in  every  farming  com- 


208 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


209 


munity  and  because  the  construction  of  wooden  houses 
is  better  understood.  There  are  men  within  easy  reach 
who  understand  and  who  have  the  tools  for  putting 
wooden  materials  together  to  make  a  good  house  and 
their  work  usually  is  satisfactory. 


Figure  129. — Basement  Plan 

The  accompanying  illustrations,  Figures  128,  129, 
130  and  131,  show  a  plain  house  that  has  square  cor- 
ners without  any  fancy  crooks  or  ornaments. 

In  the  first  place  there  is  a  good  basement.  The 
wall  is  of  concrete  up  to  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Ventilated  or  hollow  concrete  blocks  are  used  to  carry 
the  wall  up  about  three  feet  higher.  There  are  sev- 
eral good  reasons  for  so  doing.  It  is  easy  to  make  an 
inside  form  for  the  concrete  wall  and  to  use  the 
ground  for  the  outside  form.  Also  from  the  grade 
line  up  it  is  easier  to  lay  concrete  blocks  than  to  con- 
struct a  double  form  to  make  a  solid  wall. 


210 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


Concrete  block  machines  have  been  very  much  im- 
proved in  the  last  five  years  so  that  good  concrete 
block  work  may  be  done  right  on  the  building  site. 

It  is  easier  to  set  the  window  frames  between  the 
blocks  than  it  is  to  fit  them  into  the  forms  when  mak- 
ing a  solid  wall.  There  is  still  another  advantage. 


1  — — —  —  ._ 


Figure  130. — First  Floor  Plan 

When  hollow  blocks  or  ventilated  blocks  are  used  the 
air  spaces  in  the  blocks  are  non-conductors  of  heat, 
cold  and  moisture. 

This  design  shows  a  story  and  a-half  house.  The 
main  part  of  the  house  consists  of  the  basement  and 
the  main  floor.  Two  good  bed  rooms  and  a  bath  room 
are  built  into  the  attic  space  under  the  roof.  These 
rooms  are  lighted  by  multiple  windows  in  the  large 
gables. 

The  house  is  forty-two  by  thirty-two  feet  on  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS  211 

ground;  the  first  floor  is  the  same  size,  but  upstairs 
is  smaller  on  account  of  the  low  roof  at  the  sides. 
Storage  for  fruit  and  vegetables  is  under  the  front 
part  of  the  house. 

The  dairy  room  and  laundry  are  close  together 
under  the  kitchen  and  bath  room  so  that  the  plumb- 


Figure  131. — Second  Floor  Plan 

ing  is  bunched  into  one  corner  of  the  building.  From 
the  bath  room  down  through  the  kitchen  to  the  laun- 
dry and  dairy  is  but  a  short  distance  so  that  all  of 
these  rooms  may  be  supplied  by  the  same  water  pipes 
and  waste  pipes. 

The  back  entrance  to  the  cellar  and  to  the  kitchen 
is  a  great  comfort  and  convenience.  The  cement  steps 
lead  straight  down  into  the  cellar  without  any  turn, 
which  is  important  because  the  steps  are  used  so  many 


212  FARM  BUILDINGS 

times  every  day.  The  other  set  of  steps  leading  up 
to  the  kitchen  also  are  wide,  roomy  and  easy. 

There  is  an  addition  to  the  building  which  extends 
around  these  two  sets  of  steps,  thus  forming  a  shed 
over  the  kitchen  and  cellar  doors. 

The  kitchen  in  this  farm  house  is  arranged  for  con- 
venience in  doing  the  work.  There  is  room  for  a 
good  sized  dining  room  table  without  interfering  with 
the  working  end  of  the  kitchen.  The  sink,  cellar  way, 
pot  cupboard  and  pantry  are  all  within  easy  reach. 

There  is  a  small  dining  room  in  the  front  part  of 
the  house  which  will  be  used  a  great  deal  when  the 
family  is  alone,  but  during  busy  times  the  dining  table 
in  the  kitchen  will  be  found  much  more  convenient. 

The  large  living  room  twelve  by  twenty-four  feet  is 
built  for  solid  comfort.  It  is  lighted  from  both  ends 
by  large  windows  and  there  is  a  large  handsome  brick 
fireplace  which  is  intended  for  heating  as  well  as  for 
ornament.  The  chimney  flue  is  large  enough  and  is 
placed  properly  to  give  a  good  draught  so  that  the 
room  may  be  warmed  comfortably  during  mild 
weather  while  it  is  made  cheery  with  the  open  fire. 
Such  a  fine  large-  living  room  adds  a  great  deal  to 
the  appearance  of  the  interior  of  a  farm  house  when 
it  is  furnished  with  large  easy  chairs  and  a  davenport. 

The  plan  provides  for  four  bed  rooms,  two  down 
stairs  and  two  upstairs,  which  arrangement  is  about 
right  for  the  average  farm.  There  are  many  small 
conveniences  about  the  house  such  as!  closets  both  on 
the  ground  floor  and  the  upper  floor.  There  is  also 
plenty  of  shelf  room  in  the  pantry  and  there  is  a  coat 
cupboard  handy  to  the  front  door.  The  windows  are 
mostly  of  the  multiple  style  to  admit  plenty  of  light. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


213 


214 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


ANOTHER  SQUARE  TWO-STORY  HOUSE 

The  house  shown  in  Figures  132,  133,  134  and  135 
covers  a  space  twenty-eight  by  thirty-two  feet  on 
the  ground.  The  house  contains  four  rooms  and  a 
wash  room  in  the  basement,  three  rooms  on  the  first 
floor  and  four  bed  rooms  and  a  bath  room  on  the 


Figure  133. — Basement  Plan 

second  floor.     It  also  has  an  attic  for  storage  purposes. 

There  is  a  concrete  basement  wall  which  extends  up 
about  a  foot  above  grade.  The  construction  of  the 
house  from  the  wall  up  is  of  two  by  fours  for  studding 
and  rafters,  with  two  by  eights  for  joists.  On  the  out- 
side the  studding  is  covered  with  boards  dressed  to  an 
even  thickness.  They  are  better  put  on  diagonally, 
especially  in  a  windy  country,  because  every  board  is 
then  a  brace  to  make  the  frame  stronger. 

Outside  of  the  boarding  is  metal  lath  and  cement 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


215 


stucco.  The  only  objection  to  metal  lath  is  a  tendency 
to  rust.  However,  if  the  metal  lath  be  thick  and  gal- 
vanized and  the  stucco  well  made  and  troweled  on,  it 
will  last  for  a  good  many  years.  Stucco  finish  is  some- 
what cheaper  than  other  kinds  of  veneer  and  looks 
well. 


Figure  134. — First  Floor  Plan 

Inside,  the  house  is  finished  with  lath  and  plaster 
in  the  usual  way,  but  a  thickness  of  high  grade  build- 
ing paper  is  put  in  between  the  studding  and  the 
plaster  by  using  furring  strips  to  separate  the  plaster 
from  the  building  paper.  The  best  quality  of  build- 
ing paper  should  be  used.  It  is  a  good  protection 
against  heat  or  cold  in  any  climate  and  the  expense 
is  not  great.  If  poison-treated  it  is  a  protection 
against  mice. 

In  cold  climates  special  attention  is  given  to  window 
and  door  frames.  They  are  made  the  right  width  to 


216 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


allow  the  stucco  to  come  flush  with  the  outside  edge 
of  the  frame  so  that  the  casing  fits  flat  against  the 
stucco.  Sometimes  when  a  specially  tight  window  is 
wanted  fresh  stucco  is  plastered  with  a  trowel  around 
the  edge  of  the  frame  and  the  casing  nailed  against 
the  fresh  mortar. 


Figure  135. — Second  Floor  Plan 

The  front  porch  is  built  in  keeping  with  the  general 
appearance  of  the  house,  and  like  the  house  top,  the 
porch  is  covered  with  a  hip  roof.  It  makes  a  very 
attractive  front,  or  side  entrance,  according  to  which 
side  of  the  house  is  built  towards  the  road.  The  plan 
offers  a  choice  without  making  any  changes. 

The  general  plan  of  the  house  is  arranged  for  com- 
fort in  every  room.  Commencing  with  the  basement, 
there  is  a  roomy  outside  stair  leading  down  from  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS  217 

ground  level  at  the  rear.  This  stair  is  made  of  con- 
crete built  all  solid  together  with  the  cellar  walls. 
Cement  steps  also  reach  from  grade  up  to  the  back 
porch. 

The  cellar  or  basement  is  divided  into  furnace 
room,  laundry,  cold  storage  for  fruit  and  vegetables 
and  a  wash  room  for  the  men.  In  the  corner  of  this 
wash  room  is  a  shower  bath  that  is  greatly  appre- 
ciated. A  drain  in  the  floor  carries  off  the  superfluous 
water  and  discharges  it  into  the  septic  tank  along  with 
the  otheu  house  sewage. 

On  the  first  floor  is  the  living  room,  dining  room 
and  kitchen.  The  living  room  is  twenty-six  by  six- 
teen feet,  with  three  triple  windows  and  one  double 
window,  and  there  is  a  fireplace 

The  kitchen  is  nearly  square.  It  is  well  lighted  and 
conveniently  arranged.  Entrance  to  the  cellar,  both 
by  the  inside  and  outside  steps,  is  convenient  to  the 
kitchen.  This  plan  works  out  splendidly  when  there 
are  extra  men  about  as  they  make  good  use  of  the 
wash  room  in  the  basement  and  come  up  the  outside 
cellar  way  to  meals. 

The  rear  porch  in  one  house  of  this  general  design 
was  fitted  with  sash  and  used  as  a  men 's  dining  room. 
It  is  no  farther  from  the  kitchen  to  the  back  porch 
than  it  is  from  the  kitchen  to  the  dining  room. 

Placing  the  front  porch  around  the  corner  leaves 
the  front  of  the  house  free  from  obstructions  so  that 
there  is  an  uninterrupted  view  from  the  living  room. 

The  plan  of  taking  the  vestibule  from  the  end  of 
the  porch  leaves  the  inside  of  the  house  free  from  jogs 
and  corners  and  it  provides  room  for  a  good  sized  coat 
cupboard  outside  of  the  house  proper.  It  also  places 


218  FARM  BUILDINGS 

the  outside  entrance  directly  in  front  of  the  stairway 
so  that  one  can  enter  the  living  room  or  kitchen  or  go 
directly  upstairs. 

The  second  floor  is  divided  into  four  bed  rooms  and 
a  bath  room  with  an  extra  stairway  leading  up  into 
the  attic.  There  is  a  clothes  closet  for  each  bed  room 
and  a  linen  closet  in  the  hall.  The  clothes  closet  in 
the  large  bed  room  is  not  marked  on  the  plan.  It 
belongs  over  the  stairway. 

By  referring  to  the  floor  plans  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  doorways  are  all  conveniently  placed  and  that 
the  doors  open  back  against  solid  partitions.  This  is 
a  comparatively  small  consideration,  but  it  should  not 
be  overlooked  in  building  a  house.  * 

Another  desirable  feature  is  the  wall  space  provided 
for  the  placing  of  furniture.  The  new  pieces  of  fur- 
niture are  larger  and  more  comfortable  than  ever 
before  and  more  room  is  required  in  a  house  to  place 
them  for  comfort  in  regard  to  light  as  well  as  for 
looks. 

TWO-FAMILY    FARM    HOUSE 

The  design  and  plan  shown  by  Figures  136,  137, 
138  and  139  is  a  combination  house  that  may  be  used 
for  one  or  two  families.  Sometimes  a  valuable  farm 
hand  would  like  to  get  married  and  live  on  the  farm ; 
possibly  a  son  or  daughter  would  prefer  to  spend  the 
first  years  of  their  married  life  in  a  separate  apart- 
ment under  the  parental  roof.  The  expense  is  less 
than  to  provide  two  separate  houses. 

If  the  upper  rooms  are  not  wanted  for  housekeep- 
ing purposes  the  bed  rooms  will  come  in  handy  for 
extra  farm  help  or  for  the  children  as  they  grow  older. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


219 


220 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


The  plans  show  a  concrete  basement  divided  into 
rooms  that  may  be  kept  at  different  temperatures. 
There  is  a  question  whether  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
dairy  in  the  basement  of  the  house.  But  there  can 
be  no  serious  objection  if  the  room  is  light  and  has 
good  drainage  and  is  otherwise  sanitary.  It  is  cooler 
than  a  separate  dairy  house  and  the  cost  is  less  when 
the  dairy  is  made  as  shown  in  this  arrangement. 


Figure  137. — Basement  Plan 

The  house  is  planned  for  hot  and  cold  running  water 
on  all  floors.  There  are  two  bath  rooms  and  a  wash' 
room  in  the  basement  fitted  with  a  shower  bath.  All 
plumbing  is  connected  with  the  septic  tank  by  a  line 
of  four-inch  vitrified  sewer  pipe  with  leaded  joints. 

Pumping  engines  are  becoming  so  universal  on» 
farms  that  home  water  works  only  call  for  the  addi- 
tional fixtures  and  piping  to  carry  the  water  where 
it  is  wanted. 

If  this  house  is  well  built  by  using  building  paper 
and  double  boarding,  it  may  be  heated  with  one  fire 
in  a  good  warm  air  furnace.  An  eight-room  house 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


221 


usually  is  considered  the  limit  for  hot  air,  and  this 
house  has  ten  rooms,  but  the  heat  pipes  may  be  short, 
which  is  one  of  the  main  considerations. 

There  is  no  objection  to  using  hot  water  heat  in  a 
house  as  large  as  this.  Many  prefer  hot  water  as  the 
heat  is  more  even.  A  hot  water  heating  plant  costs 
more  than  a  warm  air  heater,  but  it  is  cheaper  to  run, 
that  is,  you  get  better  value  for  the  coal  consumed 


Figure   138. — First  Floor  Plan 

which  counter  balances  the  extra  interest  on  the  first 
cost. 

Inside  wood  work  should  be  plain,  no  beading  what- 
ever and  very  few  curves.  The  most  expensive  rooms 
are  finished  with  plain,  straight  bands  of  wood  instead 
of  mouldings.  From  the  baseboard  to  the  crown 
moulding  at  the  ceiling,  including  window  casings, 
door  casings,  platerail  and  the  finish  of  built  in  side- 
boards and  book  cases,  all  are  straight  and  plain  with 
square  or  slightly  rounded  corners. 

The  idea  is  to  make  the  insides  of  the  different 


S22 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


rooms  smooth  for  easy  cleaning,  both  to  save  labor 
and  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  dust. 

There  are  three  outside  entrances  to  this  house. 
There  may  be  four  if  the  back  steps  are  carried  up  to 
the  second  floor.  A  good  pantry  may  be  built  on  the 
second  floor  if  another  window  is  built  in  the  gable 
end. 


Figure  139. — Second  Floor  Plan 

The  old  fashioned  porches  are  different  from  the 
ordinary.  The  porch  roofs  may  be  extended  out  far 
enough  to  protect  the  steps  by  making  strong  brackets. 
There  should  be  no  porch  pillars. 

SMALL  FARM  COTTAGE 

This  comfortable,  artistic  little  home  with  all  of  its 
modern  conveniences  may  be  built  for  less  money  than 
some  of  the  very  plain  looking  houses  we  see  in  some 
farming  communities.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  build  a 
house  with  some  style  as  to  copy  a  poor  old  habitation 
that  was  built  in  the  dark  ages  when  window  glass 
was  a  real  luxury.  See  Figures  140,  141,  142  and  143. 

This  house  is  only  twenty-seven  by  twenty-four  feet 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


224 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


in  size  on  the  ground  and  it  is  less  than  two  stories 
high,  but  it  contains  three  living  rooms,  two  bed  rooms 
and  a  bath  room.  And  it  has  a  cellar  that  is  divided 
into  departments  the  same  as  a  large  farm  house. 


Figure  141. — Basement  Plan 


The  construction  above  the  cellar  wall  is  a  light 
framework  of  two  by  fours  covered  with  wide  boards 
and  good  building  paper  and  metal  lath  and  cement 
stucco.  The  roof  is  made  in  the  same  way  except  that 
roll  roofing  is  used  instead  of  stucco. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


Inside,  the  walls  are  made  of  plaster  board  put  on 
in  wide  panels  carefully  butted  together  to  avoid  open 
joints.  Good  quality  plaster  board  will  finish  with 
paint  or  white  enamel  as  well  as  wood.  It  is  a  good 


Figure  142. — First  Floor  Plan 


plan  to  use  a  high  baseboard  to  protect  the  plaster 
board  near  the  floor,  and  there  should  be  a  smooth 
backing  of  boards  in  rooms  that  are  not  wainscoted. 
This  backing  should  extend  up  about  three  feet. 
The  house  is  well  planned  for  convenience,  comfort 


226 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


and  economy.  A  small  furnace  of  the  warm  air 
variety  will  easily  keep  the  house  warm,  even  in  zero 
weather,  because  it  is  small,  compact  and  well  built. 

The  stairway  is  a  model  combination  of  front  stair, 
cellar  stair  and  double  door  entrance  between  the  liv- 
ing room  and  kitchen.  The  pantry  really  is  part  of 
the  back  porch  and  there  could  be  an  ice  door  to  let 
the  ice  in  from  the  outside. 


Figure  143. — Second  Floor  Plan 

Rough-faced  dark  red  or  brown  brick  are  used  for 
the  large  fireplace.  The  wide  mantle  and  chimney 
from  floor  to  ceiling  also  is  faced  with  rough  brick. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 
A  SPLENDID   COUNTRY   HOME 


227 


This  model  farm  house,  shown  in  Figures  144,  145, 
146  and  147,  is  intended  to  combine  the  business  of 
farming  with  the  comforts  of  a  real  country  home. 
The  farm  "office"  in  this  house  plan  is  in  the  dairy 
room  where  the  farmer  has  a  large  roll  top  desk  in 


Figure  144. — Splendid  Country  Home 

front  of  the  double  window  near  the  rear  entrance  to 
the  basement. 

There  is  an  electric  motor  in  the  partition  between 
the  dairy  and  the  laundry.  It  is  belted  to  the  cream 
separator  and  to  the  electric  light  dynamo  and  to  the 
washing  machine  in  the  laundry. 

The  hot  water  heater  and  boiler  have  capacity  suf- 
ficient to  supply  300  gallons  of  hot  water  which  is 
piped  to  the  dairy,  kitchen  sink  and  the  two  bath 
rooms  and  the  laundry  tubs. 

The  perspective  view  shows  a  small  ravine  at  the 
back  of  the  house  which  slopes  away  gently  to  the 
southeast.  The  house  sewer  follows  along  the  east* 
bank  of  this  depression  about  100  yards  to  the  septic 


228 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


tank.     From  the  tank  discharge  the  waste  water  is 
carried  to  connect  with  the  title  drainage  system. 

Some  grading  and  planting  are  needed  to  complete 
the  front  of  the  house — terrace  work  which  will  extend 


o 

J=LQ. 

• —  — f 


Figure  145. — Basement  Plan 

from  the  front  corner  of  the  veranda  to  the  living 
room  jog.  From  this  point  the  ground  slopes  back  to 
the  rear  of  the  house  and  is  planted  with  hardy  per- 
rennial  flowers  and  bulbs. 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


The  general  type  of  window  follows  closely  the 
multiple  design  used  along  the  lower  front,  but  single 
windows,  doubles  and  triplets  in  different  parts  of 
the  house  are  made  to  harmonize  while  varying  in 
size  and  shape  to  avoid  monotony. 


Figure  146.— First  Floor  Plan 


830 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


The  different  floor  plans  show  an  interesting 
arrangement  of  rooms  and  household  conveniences. 

The  kitchen  dining  table  is  in  the  sun  porch,  where 
it  is  out  of  the  way  of  the  kitchen  workers.  The  fam- 


Flgrure  147. — Second  Floor  Plan 


FARM  BUILDINGS 


231 


fly  dining  room  is  likely  to  be  neglected  during  the 
busy  season. 

There  is  a  dumb  waiter  which  settles  of  its  own 
weight  and  hangs  from  the  ceiling  into  the  dairy  room 
in  the  cellar.  It  is  lifted  easily  by  turning  a  windlass. 

FARM    SEPTIC    TANK 

A  septic  tank  provides  a  scientific  means  of  render- 
ing sewerage  harmless.  See  Figure  148.  It  consists 
of  two  or  three  underground  water-tight  boxes  con- 
nected together  by  U-pipes  in  the  form  of  syphons. 
When  an  underground  sewer  tank  consists  of  only  one 
compartment  it  is  called  a  catch  basin  and  sfibnld  be 
connected  with  a  regular  sewer  system. 

Two  kinds  of  bacteria  work  in  a  septic  tank,  aerobic 
bacteria  work  in  the  first  compartment  and  anaerobic 
bacteria  work  in  the  second  compartment. 


Figure  148. — Farm  Septic  Tank 

Aerobic  bacteria  are  so  named  because  they  require 
a  certain  amount  of  air  in  order  to  live  and  carry  on 
their  work  of  destruction,  while  anaerobic  bacteria  live 
and  work  without  air.  The  two  kinds  are  necessary 
to  liquidize  the  solids  in  sewerage. 

The  first  box  or  compartment  of  the  septic  tank  is 


232  FARM  BUILDINGS 

open  to  the  atmsophere  by  means  of  small  ventilators, 
usually  holes  through  the  cover  of  the  manhole.  Also 
air  is  carried  into  this  first  compartment  with  the 
sewerage  from  the  house  by  the  intermittent  charges 
which  enter  the  compartment  several  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank,  thus  forcing  air  into 
the  liquid. 

When  the  first  compartment  or  tank  fills  then  part 
of  the  contents  runs  over  into  the  second  tank  in  such 
a  way  that  the  liquid  also  enters  the  second  tank  sev- 
eral inches  below  the  surface,  but  little  or  no  air  is 
carried  over  with  it.  The  reason  for,  or  necessity  for 
these  submerged  inlets  is  that  the  work  of  the  bac- 
teria, in  destroying  offensive  matter,  is  carried  on 
principally  under  cover  of  the  scum  that  forms  at 
the  surface.  The  perfect  working  of  the  tank  requires 
that  the  scum  shall  not  be  broken.  Bacterial  action 
also  depends  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the  intermittent 
manner  in  which  the  different  charges  of  sewerage  are 
interjected  into  the  tank. 

The  size  of  the  septic  tank  varies  according  to  the 
amount  of  sewerage  to  be  disposed  of.  The  capacity 
of  the  first  box  or  compartment  should  be  sufficient  to 
hold  two  days'  or  three  days'  sewerage  before  it  runs 
over  into  the  second  compartment.  The  second  com- 
partment should  be  about  the  size  of  the  first. 

The  amount  of  sewerage  usually  is  estimated  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  persons  living  in  the  house. 
About  seventy  gallons  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours 
is  figured  for  each  person,  so  .that  each  compartment 
of  the  septic  tank  should  hold  about  400  gallons  for  a 
family  of  four  or  five  persons.  This  estimate  includes 
a  little  extra  as  a  margin  of  safety. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  233 

All  supply  pipes  and  all  waste  pipes  within  the 
walls  of  the  house  should  be  of  iron. 

The  sewer  pipes  should  be  vitrified  with  all  joints 
carefully  and  thoroughly  cemented  or  leaded.  The 
sewer  between  the  house  and  tank  should  be  four 
inches  in  diameter  laid  with  a  fall  of  about  one  inch 
in  ten  feet. 

The  syphon  pipes  and  outlet  pipes  also  should  be 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter  according  to  the  size 
of  the  tank.  They  are  set  so  as  to  prevent  the  liquid 
in  the  tank  from  rising  to  its  level  in  the  house  sewer 
pipe  regardless  of  the  size  or  depth  of  the  septic  tank. 

The  best  material  used  for  the  construction  of  a 
septic  tank  is  concrete.  The  walls  of  the  tank  may  be 
made  of  a  very  coarse  mixture,  but  the  lining  should 
be  a  rich  cement  mortar  made  with  fine  sand  and 
pressed  smoothly  with  a  trowel  to  make  it  water  tight. 

The  tops,  or  covers  of  the  tanks  require  reinforcing. 
This  may  be  done  with  iron  or  steel  rods,  but  a  cheaper 
way  is  to  use  heavy  woven  wire  fencing.  What  is 
ordinarily  sold  as  heavy  "hog  wire,"  is  very  good  for 
the  purpose.  Any  old  iron  bars  may  be  thrown  in  to 
get  rid  of  them,  but  the  hog  wire  will  reinforce  the 
cover  sufficiently. 

In  making  the  cover,  manholes  must  be  provided. 
When  the  cover  of  the  tank  is  being  made,  a  tapering 
box  placed  on  the  false  wood  work  answers  as  a  mold 
for  the  manhole  opening.  If  the  box  be  made  deep 
enough  the  same  box  may  be  used  to  cast  the  cover 
by  using  the  bottom  of  the  box  for  the  hole  and  the 
top  of  the  box  for  the  cover.  This  gives  the  cover  the 
same  mitre  as  the  hole  so  that  when  it  is  put  into  posi- 
tion it  fits  perfectly.  Any  mold  for  casting  cement 


234  FARM  BUILDINGS 

must  be  greased  to  prevent  the  cement  from  sticking 
fast.  The  mold  for  the  manhole  cover  must  be  made 
true  and  the  partition  floor  placed  in  the  box  at  the 
right  height  so  the  cover  will  settle  down  into  the 
opening  in  the  tank  top  about  even. 

A  heavy  chain  is  cast  into  the  cover  reaching  clear 
through.  An  ordinary  eye-bolt  is  not  sufficient.  If 
the  cover  sticks  and  a  pry  is  used  the  eye-bolt  may  be 
loosened,  but  a  few  links  of  chain  that  reach  clear 
though  the  cover  rarely  give  trouble. 

The  depth  of  the  tank  must  be  governed  by  the 
depth  of  the  cellar  from  which  the  sewer  pipe  is  taken. 
In  all  cases  the  sewer  pipe  should  be  below  frost  and 
the  septic  tank  should  be  some  distance  from  the 
house;  fifty  feet  or  more. 

Generally  speaking,  the  bottom  of  the  septic  tank 
should  be  at  least  three  feet  lower  than  the  bottom  of 
the  cellar.  Four  feet  is  better. 

The  final  discharge  from  the  septic  tank  is  supposed 
to  be  inoffensive  but  it  is  generally  recommended  to 
discharge  into  four-inch  drain  tile  so  that  the  water 
can  percolate  away.  The  ground  in  this  case  will  act 
as  a  purifier. 

The  amount  of  drain  tile  should  be  sufficient  to  hold 
as  much  liquid  as  one  compartment  of  the  septic  tank ; 
generally  it  will  amount  to  a  great  deal  more  than 
that  because  the  overflow  would  naturally  be  carried 
away  for  some  distance.  It  may  be  connected  with  the 
farm  drainage  system. 

It  is  usually  figured  that  one  length  of  four-inch  tile 
would  hold  one  gallon  of  liquid  discharge,  which  cal- 
culation would  require  about  400  tiles. 

One  precaution  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  per- 


FARM  BUILDINGS  235 

mitting  kitchen  grease  to  flow  into  the  septic  tank. 
Grease  gradually  accumulates  on  the  pipes  and  may 
cause  trouble  in  time.  It  is  better  not  to  let  much 
grease  get  into  the  kitchen  sink. 

A  septic  tank  properly  made  and  kept  free  from 
grease  may  not  require  cleaning  out  for  a  number  of 
years;  however,  it  is  better  to  open  a  tank  after  it 
has  been  used  for  six  months  or  a  year,  to  make  sure 
that  everything  is  working  all  right. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

DICTIONARY    OF    BUILDING    AND    ARCHITECTURAL 

TERMS     TOGETHER     WITH     NAMES     OF     MANY 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  BUILDING  MATERIAL 

Abacus. — The  upper  corbels  overtopping  a  column, 
next  under  the  architrave. 

Abutting  Joint. — Where  the  end  of  a  piece  is  joined 
to  the  side  of  another  piece  so  that  the  grain  of  the 
wood  is  placed  one  at  an  angle  to  the  other. 

Acanthus. — A  leaf  ornament  at  the  top  of  a  column. 

Acropolis. — The  upper  part  of  a  fortified  citadel. 

Acroterium. — Any  angle  of  a  pediment  or  gable, 
usually  the  upper  or  pitch  angle.  An  ornament  or 
statue  place  at  the  point  of  a  pediment  angle.  The 
ornamental  prow  or  stern  of  a  classical  galley. 

Aeolian  Harp. — A  box  fitted  with  keys  and  strings 
tuned  to  chords  or  harmonics.  It  is  placed  in  a  par- 
tially open  window  so  the  wind  plays  with  the  strings. 

Alinement, — (Sometimes  spelled  alignment).  To 
place  in  line  as  per  plan. 

Ambulatory. — A  place  to  walk.  A  promenade. 
Formerly  in  a  cloister.  See  Portico. 

Amphiprostyle. — Having  columns  at  each  end,  but 
not  at  the  sides. 

Andiron. — One  of  a  pair  of  metal  fuel  supporters 
used  in  fireplaces.  Fire  dog. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  237 

Angle. — The  approach  of  two  straight  lines  to  a 
converging  point. 

Angle  Bead. — Rounded  beaded  corner  of  an  angle 
piece  used  to  protect  the  outer  corner  of  a  wall. 

Angle  Iron. — Rolled  iron  or  steel,  the  cross  section 
of  which  forms  an  angle.  Usually  a  right  angle. 

Annulet. — A  ring  moulding.  Often  worked  on  a 
corner  block  used  to  join  door  casings  and  window 
casings. 

Anta. — A  pilaster  with  capital  and  base,  usually 
formed  by  thickening  the  wall. 

Arcade. — A  series  of  arches  together  with  the  col- 
umns or  piers  which  support  them,  open,  or  with 
openings  on  one  or  both  sides  and  with  an  open  clear 
passage  running  lengthwise.  There  may  be  a  railing 
in  front  or  at  the  back  with  no  railing  in  front,  or  it 
may  be  open  between  the  columns  in  every  direction. 

Arch. — Segment  of  an  ellipse  or  circle.  An  upward 
curve. 

Architrave. — That  part  of  a  structure  next  above 
the  abacus  or  upper  corbel  above  a  column.  The  lower 
division  of  the  entablature,  consisting  of  the  upper 
fascia  and  lower  fascia.  Also  a  set  of  mouldings  run- 
ning across  over  a  square  doorway.  A  decorated  beam 
spanning  the  distance  between  two  or  more  posts. 

Archivolt. — The  front  or  outside  surface  of  an  arch, 
the  mouldings  forming  the  ornamental  voussoir  curve. 

Area. — When  a  cellar  is  deep  the  windows  reach 
down  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  earth  is 
removed  and  the  space  is  boxed  around  with  brick  or 
concrete.  The  opening  is  called  an  area, 

Atlantes. — Half  figures  of  men  to  support  an  entab- 
lature (see  Telamones  and  Caryatides). 


238  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Axis. — A  central  guiding  line  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  architectural  drawings. 

Balcony. — A  projecting  platform,  cage,  or  short 
gallery,  resting  on  brackets  or  consoles  enclosed  by  a 
parapet. 

Baldachin. — A  canopy  supported  by  pillars.  It 
may  stand  on  the  floor,  hang  from  the  roof  or  pro- 
ject from  the  wall.  It  is  generally  placed  over  an 
altar. 

Baluster. — A  spindle  to  support  the  rail  of  an  open 
staircase.  A  baluster  is  sometimes  incorrectly  called 
banister. 

Balustrade. — A  rail  with  a  row  of  balusters  to  sup- 
port it  to  protect  an  open  parapet,  balcony  or  bridge. 

Barge  Board.     See  Verge  Board. 

Barge  Course. — Projecting  bricks  forming  a  con- 
tinuous projection  capping  a  gable  wall. 

Bascule  Bridge. — A  lift  bridge  operated  by  a  lever 
which  is  pivoted  in  the  center  and  weighted  at  one 
end.  The  outer  end  of  the  bridge  is  lifted.  As  it 
rises  it  closes  the  inner  approach  like  a  door.  A  draw 
bridge  to  a  castle.  Also  used  to  bridge  canals  at  street 
crossings. 

Base  Board. — A  plinth,  usually  having  a  moulded 
upper  edge.  Used  around  a  room  as  a  finish  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  walls. 

Batten. — Also  spelled  latton.  A  narrow  strip  of 
wood  or  metal  used  to  cover  a  crack. 

Beam. — A  stick  of  timber  of  considerable  size. 

Belfry. — A  bell  tower.  A  cupola  with  supports  to 
swing  a  bell. 

Belly. — The  belly  of  a  timber  is  the  outward  or 
downward  curve.  See  Camber. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  239 

Bin. — A  small  room  or  box  partitioned  off  in  a 
granary  or  barn.  It  may  or  may  not  have  sloping 
sides  or  bottom,  with  or  without  carrying  shutes. 
Hopper  bin.  Grain  bin. 

Bird's  Mouth. — A  v-shaped  opening  in  the  end  of 
a  piece  of  timber.  Sometimes  it  is  made  ornamental. 

Blinds. — There  are  both  inside  and  outside  window 
blinds,  both  made  of  wood.  Inside  blinds  fold  back 
into  recesses  in  the  box  window  frame.  Outside  blinds 
usually  are  made  in  pairs  and  swing  out  and  back 
against  the  side  of  the  building.  Both  kinds  are 
slatted. 

Block  House. — A  log  fort.  The  upper  story  projects 
beyond  the  first  story  on  all  sides. 

Board  Measure. — Lumber  measure.  Formerly  144 
cubic  inches  constituted  a  foot  of  lumber,  but  144 
square  inches  now  passes  for  a  foot  when  the  boards 
are  one  inch  or  less  in  thickness. 

Bond. — In  a  stone  wall  the  bonding  stone  reaches 
across  to  bind  together  the  stones  facing  either  side 
of  the  wall. 

Booth. — A  small  house  with  one  or  more  open  sides. 
A  stall  in  a  market  house.  A  stand  for  selling  at  a 
bazaar  or  fair. 

Boudoir. — Small  reception  room.  A  private  sitting 
room. 

Bourse. — Money  exchange.  A  meeting  place,  room 
or  building,  to  make  transfers  in  a  mercantile  way. 

Box  Office. — Booth  for  selling  theatre  tickets.  An 
office  with  a  selling  window  that  is  accessible  to  the 
public. 

Brace. — A  prop  to  prevent  two  timbers  from  coming 


240  FARM  BUILDINGS 

together.  In  modern  plank  frame  construction  a  brace 
may  also  be  a  tie. 

Bracket. — A  triangular  brace  reaching  out  to  sup- 
port something. 

Bridging. — Short  pieces  of  scantling  with  beveled 
ends  nailed  between  joists  to  stiffen  the  floor.  These 
blocks  reach  from  the  bottom  edge  of  one  joist  to  the 
top  edge  of  the  next. 

Bridgeboard. — A  stair  stringer. 

Building  Paper. — Used  to  cover  the  sides  of  wooden 
buildings.  It  is  placed  between  two  thicknesses  of 
boards. 

Camber. — Concavity  of  the  under  side  of  a  beam. 
A  vessel's  deck  is  said  to  be  built  with  a  camber, 
because  it  curves  upward.  The  term  is  sometimes 
applied  to  road-building.  To  curve  or  bend  upward. 

Canopy. — An  ornamental  projection  over  a  door, 
window  or  niche.  A  roof -like  covering. 

Cantalever. — Also  spelled  cantilever.  From  cant,  an 
external  angle,  and  lever,  a  roof  supporter.  A  bracket 
projecting  out  to  support  a  balcony  or  the  upper  part 
of  a  cornice. 

Caryatides. — Draped  female  figures  supporting  an 
entablature.  See  corresponding  male  figures,  Atlantes, 
Telam&nes  and  Persians. 

Cella  of  a  Temple. — An  enclosure  between  walls 
behind  a  portico. 

Cement. — A  mixture  of  lime,  clay  and  other  sub- 
stances. 

Portland  Cement  gets  its  name  from  Portland,  Eng- 
land, where  it  was  found  as  a  natural  deposit  in  the 
earth.  It  is  now  manufactured  in  many  large  fac- 
tories. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  241 

Cement  Mortar.  A  mixture  usually  consisting  of 
one  part  cement  and  two  parts  clean  sand,  first  thor- 
oughly mixed  dry,  then  thoroughly  mixed  wet.  The 
fineness  of  the  sand  determines  the  fineness  of  the 
mortar. 

Citadel. — Fortress.  Fort.  Fortification.  Final 
strength  in  resistance.  A  citadel  may  be  near  a  city 
or  inside  a  fortified  city.  The  heavily  protected  maga- 
zine section  of  a  battleship. 

Clap-Board. — Narrow  weather  boarding  placed  hori- 
zontally, each  board  overlapping  the  one  next  below. 
Clap-boards  usually  are  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
thick  at  the  upper  edge  and  half  an  inch  thick  at  the 
lower  edge.  This  allows  for  saw  cut  and  the  ripping 
of  two  clap-boards  from  a  rough  board  an  inch  thick. 

Colonnade. — A  series  or  range  of  columns  placed  at 
regular  intervals  with  entablature,  stylobate,  roof,  etc. 
If  placed  by  itself  it  is  sometimes  called  a  peristyle. 
If  attached  to  a  building,  a  portico. 

Column. — A  cylindrical  post  more  or  less  elaborate, 
usually  with  base,  shaft  and  capital.  A  pillar,  used  to 
support  some  part  of  the  superstructure. 

Concrete. — Spontaneous  union  of  cement  and  sand 
and  small  particles  of  rock  into  a  solid  mass. 

Conductor  Pipe. — Down  spout.  Usually  a  three- 
inch  pipe  made  of  tin  or  galvanized  iron  to  conduct 
rain  water  from  the  roof  gutter  to  the  sewer. 

Console. — A  bracket  twice  the  height  of  its  width, 
used  to  support  a  cornice  or  other  projection. 

Coping. — The  top  course  in  stone  or  brick  walls. 
The  covering  course.  Generally  overlapping  with  pro- 
vision for  protecting  the  wall  from  rain  water.  Also 
called  copping. 


242  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Corbel. — An  upright  series  of  bricks  either  in  layers 
or  single,  each  one  overlaying  the  one  below  it,  built 
up  to  support  a  projecting  ledge,  like  a  shelf  mantle 
over  a  fireplace.  A  fancy  carved  bracket.  Overlaying 
stone  supports. 

Cornice. — Projection,  usually  moulded.  Finish  un- 
der the  shingles  of  a  projecting  roof. 

Corps. — A  small  part  of  a  building  projecting  be- 
yond the  general  outline. 

Cottage  Roof. — Sloping  from  the  ridge  to  the  eaves 
at  the  ends  as  well  as  at  the  sides  of  the  building. 
See  Hip  Roof. 

Counter  Brace. — Supplementary  brace  in  truss 
work. 

Cove. — An  arch  or  concave. 

Cove  Moulding. — A  moulding  cut  with  a  hollow 
circle,  used  in  corners  and  between  a  ceiling  and  the 
waU. 

Cupola. — An  inverted  cup  or  tub.  A  small  dome- 
shaped  roof.  An  ornament  on  the  top  of  a  tower  in 
lantern  style. 

Curb. — The  border  at  the  side  of  a  street.  The 
gambrel  in  a  roof. 

Curb  Roof. — Also  called  a  gambrel  roof.  It  has  two 
pitches.  The  lower  part,  reaching  downward  from  the 
curb  to  the  eaves,  is  much  steeper  than  the  upper 
section,  which  reaches  upward  from  the  curb  to  the 
peak. 

D  &  M. — In  building  specifications  means  dressed 
and  matched.  Planed  and  grooved  or  tongue  and 
groove. 

Dimension  Stuff. — Building  materials  of  wood  in 
sizes  as  specified. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  243 

Dropsiding. — A  trade  name  for  weather  boards  that 
have  been  shaped  in  a  sticker. 

Dressed. — The  rough  saw  surface  planed  off. 

Extrados. — Same  as  intrados,  taken  collectively. 

Expanded  Metal  Lath. — Sheet  metal  cut  through 
with  numerous  slits  and  the  openings  spread. 

Equerry. — Sometimes  spelled  equery,  a  stable  for 
horses,  presided  over  by  a  royal  officer. 

Ecurie. — See  Equerry.     A  stable. 

Fascia. — A  broad  fillet  or  flat  band.  In  American 
house  building  the  part  of  the  finish  under  the  roof 
projection  that  lies  flat  against  the  side  of  the  building 
is  called  the  fascia. 

Fennestration. — Proportioned  for  windows  or  with 
windows  in  series. 

Fire  Dog. — An  andiron. 

Flashing. — Small  sheets  of  tin  inserted  between 
shingles,  or  bricks,  to  turn  rain  water. 

Flawn. — A  court  or  part  of  a  street  marked  off  for 
some  specific  purpose. 

Flyer,  Fliers. — Steps  in  a  straight  stairway.  Paral- 
lel stair  steps. 

Footing. — The  side  base  of  a  wall  or  pier. 

Gabion. — A  cylinder  of  coarse  basket  work,  without 
a  bottom,  to  be  filled  with  sand.  A  crib  to  be  filled 
with  stones  and  sunk  in  the  water. 

Gable. — The  part  of  a  building  under  the  projecting 
end  of  a  roof  and  above  the  level  of  the  eaves.  Gables 
usually  are  vertical  and  triangular  in  shape.  The 
recessed  triangular  surface  space  is  called  the  pedi- 
ment. 

Gallery. — A  long,  narrow  floor  with  a  low  balustrade 
along  the  front  side.  It  often  is  built  to  increase  the 


244,  FARM  BUILDINGS 

seating  capacity  of  churches,  halls,  etc.  Sometimes 
the  gallery  is  too  narrow  for  seats,  but  is  used  to  con- 
nect two  parts  of  a  building.  Galleries  are  supported 
by  columns  or  brackets. 

G&mbrel  Roof. — A  roof  that  is  pentagonal  in  cross 
section,  having  two  pitches  breaking  at  the  curb,  the 
lower  pitch  being  steeper  than  the  upper  one.  Same 
as  curb  roof. 

Gargoyle. — A  fancy  water  spout.  On  expensive 
buildings  roof  gutter  outlets  sometimes  are  fashioned 
in  grotesque  figures  representing  men  or  animals. 
Also  spelled  gargyle,  gurgoyle  and  gargle. 

Girder. — A  heavy  beam  to  support  floor  joists.  A 
compound  girder  to  support  rafters  is  built  of  several 
pieces  in  the  form  of  a  truss. 

Graywacke. — A  term  used  to  describe  a  mass  of 
rocky  material  that  has  been  partially  cemented  to- 
gether by  nature.  In  building  it  has  been  used  to 
denote  rubblestone  masonry. 

Grill  Work. — Open  work  of  light  wood  or  metal  to 
form  a  screen  or  partition. 

Guilloche. — Ornamental  scroll  work  woven  about 
round  centers,  originally  a  carving. 

Gutter. — Bain  trough  at  or  near  the  eave. 

Hair. — Usually  means  cows'  hair  collected  from 
hides  at  the  tannery.  Hair  is  used  to  mix  with  plas- 
tering mortar  and  with  stucco  to  help  bind  it  together 
and  hold  it  to  the  lath. 

Hay  Doorway. — A  large  opening  for  the  hay  fork. 
It  should  be  six  or  eight  feet  wide  and  eight  or  ten  feet 
in  height. 

Hay  Fork  Hood. — The  roof  projection  built  out  over 
the  hay  door  to  protect  the  hay  track  extension. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  245 

Hermes. — A  sculptured  boundary  stone  showing  a 
human  head.  A  corner  or  boundary  stone  or  post. 

Hip  Rafter. — The  corner  rafter  in  a  hip  roof  reach- 
ing from  the  plate  to  the  ridge  at  the  corner  of  a 
building. 

Hip  Roof. — Sloping  from  the  plate  to  the  peak  from 
the  sides  and  ends  of  the  building.  See  Cottage  Roof. 

Intrado. — The  convex  or  interior  surface  of  an  arch 
stone  or  voussoir. 

Jack  Rafter. — A  short  rafter  reaching  from  the  eave 
to  the  hip  rafter. 

Joists. — Supports  for  both  floor  and  ceiling.  Joists 
usually  are  two  inches  thick  and  from  six  inches  to  a 
foot  in  width. 

Key  Stone. — A  wedge  shaped  stone  forming  the 
apex  of  an  arch. 

King  Post. — A  brace  post  in  a  compound  girder 
extending  from  the  center  of  the  tie  timber  to  the 
ridge. 

Lintel. — The  horizontal  top  of  a  door  frame  or 
archway. 

Loggia. — An  enclosed  veranda.  More  a  part  of  a 
house  than  a  porch.  Usually  not  the  entrance  way. 
An  outdoor  room  opening  into  a  parlor  or  living  room. 

Log  Scale. — Logs  are  measured,  or  scaled,  across  the 
small  end  with  a  rule  marked  for  quick  reading. 

Louver. — Slanting  boards  closing  a  tower  from  rain. 
In  a  belfry  tower  to  exclude  the  rain  but  permitting 
the  sound  to  escape. 

Mausoleum. — Sepulchre  above  ground. 

Metal  Lath. — Sheet  metal  slotted  and  expanded. 

Minaret. — An  open  tower  top  of  lantern  or  light- 
house or  turret  design.  A  slim  tower  attached  to  the 


246  FARM  BUILDINGS 

corner  of  a  mosque,  having  projecting  balconies,  used 
to  call  the  worshippers. 

Molding. — Also  spelled  moulding.  A  strip  of  wood 
shaped  to  some  graceful  or  fancy  form. 

Moncharaby. — A  projecting  latticed  balcony  sup- 
ported by  brackets  or  corbels.  An  oriel. 

Monitor  Roof. — A  raised  projection  in  the  form  of 
a  turret,  usually  with  slats  for  ventilation.  Modern 
farm  monitor  roofs  usually  have  windows  on  both 
sides  of  the  monitor. 

Mortise. — A  hole,  square  or  rectangular  in  shape, 
made  to  receive  a  tenon. 

Mud  Sill. — A  log  or  stick  of  timber  resting  on  the 
ground  to  support  some  part  of  a  building. 

MuUion. — See  Stile.  An  upright  division  bar  be- 
tween lights  of  glass.  Also  written  munni-o-n,  muntin 
and  munting. 

Multifoil. — An  architectural  ornament  consisting  of 
more  than  five  divisions.  The  scalloped  inner  edge  of 
a  circle. 

Narthex. — The  outer  court  or  atrium  in  church 
architecture.  The  term  is  used  in  connection  with 
ambulatories.  The  narthex  is  used  as  a  vestibule  or 
lobby  leading  to  the  nave. 

Oriel. — A  bay  window  corbeled  out. 

Parapet. — A  low  wall  to  protect  the  edge  of  a  plat- 
form, roof  or  porch. 

Parvis. — The  upper  story  of  a  porch. 

Patio. — A  Spanish  word  meaning  a  court  in  the  rear 
and  in  connection  with  a  building.  The  buildings 
form  three  sides  of  the  inclosure,  there  may  be  a 
building  or  a  high  fence  across  the  near  end. 

Peak. — The  summit  or  ridge  of  a  roof. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  247 

Pediment. — The  triangular  surface  space  in  the 
gable  end  of  a  building  enclosed  by  the  end  projection 
of  a  simple  roof.  See  Tympanum,  also  Gable. 

Pentastyle. — A  portico  having  five  columns  in  front. 

Pergola. — Also  spelled  pergula.  Similar  to  a  peri- 
style but  usually  is  not  connected  with  a  building.  An 
arbor  with  columns  built  of  open  work,  usually  of 
timbers.  A  vine  covered  arbor.  It  may  be  straight 
or  curved. 

Peristyle. — A  complete  set  of  columns  with  entabla- 
ture in  circular  or  elliptical  form,  usually  placed 
around  a  court  to  connect  two  parts  of  a  building  or 
two  separate  buildings. 

Piazza. — A  gallery,  roofed  in  arcade  style.  Longer 
than  a  portico. 

Pier. — Usually  of  stone,  concrete  or  brick,  built 
solid  with  footings  firmly  imbedded  in  the  ground. 

Pitch. — The  angle  or  rise  of  a  roof. 

Pilaster. — A  pier  projecting  from  a  wall  about  one- 
third  of  its  width,  having  capital,  shaft  and  base  to 
correspond  with  columns. 

Pillar. — May  be  either  pier  or  column.  A  symbol 
of  strength. 

Plancier. — The  underside  of  the  cornice  projection. 
The  ceiling  that  is  nailed  to  the  under  edges  of  the 
rafters  outside  of  the  building. 

Plate. — The  upper  horizontal  timber  in  the  frame  of 
the  side  of  a  building.  The  lower  support  of  the 
rafters. 

Plate  Rail. — A  narrow  shelf  extending  around  the 
dining  room.  It  is  placed  about  five  feet  six  inches 
above  the  floor. 

Plank. — Thicker  than  a  board.     Planks  are  from 


248  FARM  BUILDINGS 

one  and  one-fourth  inches  to  three  inches  in  thickness. 

Plaza. — A  public  square ;  a  term  borrowed  from  the 
Spanish. 

Portico. — A  covered  ambulatory  of  colonnade  form 
usually  at  the  entrance  of  a  building  and  usually  in 
classical  style.  See  Ambulatory. 

Portico-Chaise. — A  porch  over  a  driveway  for  car- 
riages to  pass  through.  An  elevated  floor  on  the  house 
side  is  placed  at  the  proper  level  to  step  into  or  out 
of  the  carriages  easily. 

Post. — An  upright  support. 

Prostyle. — A  building  having  columns  in  front. 

Purlin  or  Purlin  Plate. — Used  in  pair  in  roof  con- 
struction. Purlins  extend  horizontally  of  the  building 
and  support  the  rafters  between  the  plate  and  the 


Quadra. — The  lowest  base  of  a  pedestal.  A  water 
table,  podium,  listel,  fillet. 

Queen  Posts. — Are  used  in  pair  in  roof  construction. 
Instead  of  one  center  king  post  two  queen  posts  are 
placed,  extending  from  the  tie  beam  up  to  the  purlins. 

Quirk  Moulding. — A  corner  moulding  with  a  square 
inside  corner  and  a  bead  worked  on  the  outside  corner. 
Used  to  protect  the  outside  exposed*  corner  of  a  wall. 

Rafter. — Scantling  or  small  timber  reaching  from 
the  eaves  to,  or  towards,  the  peak  or  top  of  the  roof. 

Rail. — The  upper  part  of  a  balustrade. 

Railing. — See  Rail. 

Ramp. — A  concave  cap  overtopping  a  concave  de- 
scending or  ascending  wall  or  path  border.  The  ram- 
part walls  built  at  the  sides  of  the  steps  leading  up  to 
a  porch  or  veranda. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  249 

Renaissance. — Means  rehabilitating  an  old  style  or 
design. 

Resaw. — Planks  are  sometimes  split  with  a  resaw  to 
make  thin  boards. 

Ridge. — The  top  of  the  roof  where  the  two  sides 
meet. 

Ridge  Board. — A  board  set  on  edge  between  the 
ends  of  two  opposite  sets  of  rafters. 

Ridgepole. — A  round  pole  used  to  support  the  high 
center  of  a  tent. 

Riser. — The  vertical  face  board  connecting  two  stair 
steps  is  called  a  riser. 

Roofs. — Hip  roof,  also  called  cottage  roof.  Curb 
roof,  ak3  called  gambrel  roof.  Gable  roof.  Gothic 
roof. 

Rubblestone. — Stone  used  in  masonry  in  its  rough 
natural  state  for  filling  between  wall  facings.  Also 
cobble-stone  wall,  pier  and  chimney  work.  Sometimes 
called  graywacke. 

Sanitation. — Means  cleanliness.  Clean  air,  clean 
water  and  clean  food  for  both  man  and  beast.  New 
farm  buildings  are  designed  along  these  lines. 

Scantling. — Smaller  than  timber.  Small  dimension 
stuff. 

Shakes. — Thicker  and  longer  than  shingles.  A  bar- 
rel stave.  Shakes  are  rived  out  of  timber  bolts  with 
a  froe. 

Sheathing. — Roof  boards.  Also  boards  used  to  side 
up  a  house  before  applying  building  paper  and  siding. 

Shingles. — May  be  of  wood,  metal  or  asphalt.  Slate 
shingles  are  called  tile. 

Shiplap. — Used  for  outside  boarding. 


250  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Sill. — The  lower  timber  in  the  frame  of  a  building. 

Sleeper. — A  valley  rafter.  The  valley  flashings  fol- 
low the  sleeper  down  to  the  eave  gutter  or  eave  trough. 

Stanchion. — Used  to  mean  rigid  stocks  to  fasten  a 
cow  in  her  stall.  Modern  stanchions  are  not  rigid,  but 
they  still  retain  the  name. 

Stay  Lath. — A  temporary  brace. 

Stile. — In  framework  the  upright  pieces  are  called 
stiles  and  the  cross  pieces  are  rails.  Smaller  uprights 
to  divide  the  framework  into  sections  are  called 
mullions.  Stiles  carry  mortises,  rails  are  tenoned  into 
them. 

Stilted  Arch. — An  arch  on  high  posts. 

Stoop. — A  wide  step  in  front  of  an  entrance  door, 
large  enough  to  hold  a  seat,  with  steps  leading  to  the 
ground.  It  may  have  a  roof  cover. 

Stringer. — A  horizontal  sleeper.  A  timber  to  con- 
nect two  or  more  upright  posts.  A  longitudinal  or 
lengthwise  bed  piece.  A  bridge  timber  to  support  a 
railway  track.  When  a  stick  of  timber  lies  crosswise 
of  the  track  it  is  called  a  cross  sleeper. 

Strut. — Stretching  piece.  To  hold  apart.  A  brace 
placed  at  an  angle  between  two  parallel  timbers.  Used 
in  truss  work  from  or  to  a  king  or  queen  post. 

Stucco. — Formerly  an  inside  plaster  made  of  sand 
and  powdered  marble  and  other  ingredients.  The 
name  is  now  used  to  denote  an  outside  plaster  finish 
which  usually  contains  cement  and  hair. 

Studding. — Upright  scantlings  in  house  walls  and 
partitions. 

Stylobate. — A  continuous  flat  band  coping,  or  pave- 
ment for  the  base  support  of  colonnade  columns. 


FARM  BUILDINGS  251 

Superstructure. — The  lighter  or  upper  part  of  a 
building  above  the  foundation  walls. 

T  &  G. — When  used  in  house  specifications  means 
tongue  and  groove. 

Tenon. — The  end  of  a  rail  with  shoulder  or  shoul- 
ders made  to  fit  a  corresponding  mortise. 

Threshold. — The  stone  or  timber  placed  under  an 
entrance  door.  A  thin  beveled  strip  of  wood  fitted 
across  any  doorway  to  meet  up  close  against  the  bottom 
of  a  door. 

Tie.— To  hold  together.  The  opposite  of  strut.  It 
may  be  an  iron  rod  or  a  stick  of  timber. 

Tile. — Sewer  tile  is  vitrified.  Drain  tile  is  burned 
in  a  kiln  like  brick.  Drain  tile  also  is  made  of  con- 
crete. Roof  tile  when  well  burned  makes  the  most 
lasting  roof. 

Timber. — A  straight  stick  of  wood  larger  than  four 
inches  square. 

Timber  Measure. — Same  as  lumber,  that  is,  144 
cubic  inches  make  one  foot. 

Tread. — The  top  or  surface  of  a  stair  step  is  called 
the  tread. 

Turret. — A  revolving  tower  in  which  guns  are 
mounted. 

Turret  Roof. — A  term  sometimes  applied  to  the 
raised  portion  of  a  railway  coach  roof  in  which  are  the 
ventilators. 

Tympanum. — The  space  between  a  smaller  arch  and 
a  larger  arch  placed  over  it,  or  the  space  in  the  upper 
part  of  an  arch  above  a  lintel.  The  face  of  a  pediment 
recessed,  in  an  arch  or  gable. 

Valley. — The  junction  of  two  roofs  connected  at 
right  angles  to  each  other. 


252  FARM  BUILDINGS 

Valley  Flashing. — Sheet  metal  inserted  between  the 
shingles  to  make  the  valley  gutter  water-tight. 

Ventilators. — Stable  ventilation  depends  upon  in- 
take flues,  outlet  pipes,  metal  ventilator  hoods  and 
special  windows. 

Veranda. — A  roofed  gallery  in  front  of  a  house  with 
columns  or  pillars  in  front. 

Verge  Board. — An  edgewise  perpendicular  border 
board  suspended  from  the  end  of  the  roof  on  the  gable 
end  of  a  building.  Also  called  barge  board. 

Vaulted  Roof. — Concave  arch.  An  arch  continuous 
from  side  to  side  of  a  room. 

Voussoir. — A  wedge-shaped  arch  stone. 

Wall  Board. — A  hard  plaster  composition  rolled  into 
sheets.  It  is  sold  in  different  widths  and  is  used 
instead  of  lath  and  plaster. 

Wall  Sockets. — Iron  sockets  are  made  to  hold  the 
bottom  ends  of  studding.  The  sockets  are  built  into 
the  top  of  the  concrete  wall  so  that  no  wooden  sill 
is  required. 

Window  Stool. — The  inside  finishing  piece  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sash. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Architectural  terms 236 

A-shaped  hog  cot 120 

Auditorium    barn 65 

Barn    construction 10 

Basement  walls,  different  kinds  of 160 

Breeds   of   fowls 124 

Brick  for  walls 166 

Building  bracket 58 

Building  material,  names   of  different  kinds  of 236 

Building  plans,   reading    172 

Building  terms    236 

Business  farm  house 197 

Butter  dairy    92 

Calf   feeder 96 

Center  piers 167 

Chicken  oiler 149 

Clothesline  reel 159 

Concrete   barnyard    22,  152 

Concrete  dairy  house  with  water  tank  overhead 94 

Concrete  dairy  stable    22 

Concrete  engine  foundation    153 

Concrete  garage    72 

Concrete  scale  base  and  pit 154 

Concrete  feeding  trough   156 

Concrete  foundations  23 

Concrete  ice  house  101 

Concrete  mixing 28,  37 

Concrete  on  the  farm 151 

Corn  crib,  two-story 76 

Corn  crib  with  open  feeder  trough 106 

Corn  crib,  shelling  and  storing 79 

Cost  of  building 9 

253 


254  INDEX 

PAGE 

Country  home,  a  splendid    227 

Country  home,  attractive   , 186 

Curb-roof   dairy   stable 1!) 

Curved  rafters,  how  to  form 67 

Dairy  and  horse  barn   23 

Dairy  and  pump  house  90 

Dairy  barn  for  thirty  cows  43 

Dairy  barn  for  twenty -eight  cows   33 

Dairy  house,    small,   separate 87 

Dairy  stable  with  wide  center  alley 13 

Dairy  stall  and  manger * 58 

Dictionary  of  building  and  architectural  terms 236 

Economy  of  farm  buildings 7 

Egg-shaped  barn   62 

Elliptical  barn 62 

Engine  foundation,   concrete 153 

Farm    buildings,    miscellaneous 71 

Farm  homes 160 

Feed    hoppers,    poultry 142 

Feeding  trough,   concrete 156 

Feed  trough,  sanitary  poultry 147 

Fencing,  cost  of ". 106 

Five-room   house 180 

Floors  and  siding 176 

Floors   for   stables 35 

Foundations   for   farm   buildings 160 

Four-story    poultry    house 136 

Garage    71 

Gate,  field    108 

Grade  cellar  entrance 170 

Grain,  cleaning  and  grading 78 

Grinding  feed    80 

Harrow   sled    Ill 

Hayfork  hood    56 

Hillside  poultry   house 135 

Hog  breeding  crate 123 

Hog  house  alley,   concrete 157 

Hog  house,  portable 117 

Hog  house,  winter    112 


INDEX  255 

PAGE 

Hog  loading  shute    123 

Hog  wallow,   concrete    155 

Hook  for  catching  poultry 148 

Horse  and  cow  barn 16 

Ice  house    97 

Ice  house,  concrete 101 

Implement    shed 84 

Labor  saving  dairy  machinery 54 

Mail    box,    permanent 157 

Manure   carriers 31 

Manure  shed    100 

Milking   machinery    31 

Milk  record  sheet 94 

Monitor  roof  dairy  stable 49 

New  York  poultry  house 130 

One-story  farm  house 191 

Paved    barnyard 153 

Plank   floor    construction 170 

Plank  frame  construction 11,   26,,    30 

Portable  brooder   and   small   poultry   house  combined ....    131 

Portable  hog  house    117 

Portable  poultry  house  132 

Poultry   124 

Poultry  A-house    125 

Poultry  breeding  terms 124 

Poultry  catching  hook    148 

Poultry  feed  hoppers 142 

Poultry  foods    for    winter 126 

Poultry  furniture   124 

Poultry  house    124 

Poultry  house,  four-story 136 

Poultry  house,  size  of 126 

Power  house    71 

Pump  house  91 

Reading  building   plans 172 

Roof   construction    41 

Round  barn    . .  63 


256  INDEX 

PAGE 

Round  barn,  floor  plan  of 66 

Round  curb-roof  barn    62 

Sanitary  poultry  feed  trough 147 

Scale  house 104 

Septic  tank    231 

Sheep   barn,   eight-sided    69 

Sheep  barns    68 

Siding    176 

Silage    68 

Silage,  use  of 55 

Sills     171 

Silo  36,  46 

Six-room    farm    house 173 

Small  farm  cottage    222 

Small  farm  garage 75 

Square  farm  house 202 

Square  two-story   house    214 

Stable  floors     51 

Stable  manure 38 

Staking  the  cellar 160 

Steel    stall    partitions 47 

Stock  hurdle   110 

Storage  barn  showing  bracing 60 

Story-and-a-half    farm    house 207 

Straw  as  feed 38 

Two-family   farm   house 218 

Two-story  corn  crib   76 

Two-story  granary,  foundation  and  floor  of 80 

Ventilating   system    46 

Ventilation    .". 30,  83 

Ventilation   for  barns 20 

Ventilation  of  poultry  houses 134 

Wall  materials    164 

Windows  in  stables 47 


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